Resilience to maternal depression in young adulthood.

Using a prospective longitudinal design, this study investigated factors associated with resilience in 20-year-old offspring of depressed mothers (n = 648). Resilient youth were operationally defined as those whose mothers were depressed but who themselves had no history of recurrent depression and currently evidenced adequate academic or work and romantic functioning, no Axis I psychopathology, and no clinically significant internalizing behavior problems. Low levels of perceived maternal psychological control (p = .02) and high child IQ (p p = .02), high maternal warmth (p p p p p = .03). Interventions focused on these 2 protective factors might yield the strongest benefits for offspring of depressed mothers as they transition to early adulthood. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Displaced aggression in young children.

Young children played a card game in which some Ss associated losses with a child-figure card and winnings with a plain card, while others associated losses with a plain card and winnings with the child-figure card. Following the card game, Ss played a shooting game in which they selected targets from among pairs of figures that varied from the card game figure on a dimension of physical similarity. Both sexes showed a significant tendency to select, as targets, either figures more like or figures less like the card game figure. There were no differences in target choices as a function of conditions. Among Ss who lost to the card game figure, boys and girls differed, boys favoring more like figures and girls favoring less like figures. The Ss also shot the card game figure itself. Boys who lost the most to that figure shot the greatest number of times; those who lost less, the fewest numbers of times; and boys who won from the figure were in between. No differences were found for girls. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Low self-esteem prospectively predicts depression in adolescence and young adulthood.

Low self-esteem and depression are strongly correlated in cross-sectional studies, yet little is known about their prospective effects on each other. The vulnerability model hypothesizes that low self-esteem serves as a risk factor for depression, whereas the scar model hypothesizes that low self-esteem is an outcome, not a cause, of depression. To test these models, the authors used 2 large longitudinal data sets, each with 4 repeated assessments between the ages of 15 and 21 years and 18 and 21 years, respectively. Cross-lagged regression analyses indicated that low self-esteem predicted subsequent levels of depression, but depression did not predict subsequent levels of self-esteem. These findings held for both men and women and after controlling for content overlap between the self-esteem and depression scales. Thus, the results supported the vulnerability model, but not the scar model, of self-esteem and depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychosocial and health consequences of adolescent depression in Black and White young adult women.

Depression in adolescent girls may result in negative consequences in young adulthood. The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) was administered to 1,727 Black and White girls ages 16 to 18 years who participated in the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute's Growth and Health Study. Three years later, women in the depressed groups were more likely to be current smokers, had attained a lower level of education, and reported lower self-worth relative to the nondepressed group. Body dissatisfaction, eating concerns, and loneliness were greater in the depressed groups. Relative to Black women, White women who were moderately depressed during adolescence reported more health care services utilization in young adulthood. Prevention efforts for depressed adolescents should be broadly focused to improve young adult outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The efficacy of toddler-parent psychotherapy to reorganize attachment in the young offspring of mothers with major depressive disorder: A randomized preventive trial.

The development of insecure attachment relationships in the offspring of mothers with major depressive disorder (MDD) may initiate a negative trajectory leading to future psychopathology. Therefore, the provision of theoretically guided interventions designed to promote secure attachment is of paramount importance. Mothers who had experienced MDD since their child's birth were recruited (n = 130) and randomized to toddler-parent psychotherapy (DI) or to a control group (DC). Nondepressed mothers with no current or history of major mental disorder and their toddlers also were recruited for a nondepressed comparison group (NC; n = 68). Children averaged 20.34 months of age at the initial assessment. Higher rates of insecure attachment were present in both the DI and the DC groups at baseline, relative to the NC group. At postintervention, at age 36 months, insecure attachment continued to predominate in the DC group. In contrast, the rate of secure attachment had increased substantially in the DI group and was higher than that for the DC and the NC groups. These results demonstrate the efficacy of toddler-parent psychotherapy in fostering secure attachment relationships in young children of depressed mothers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interparental aggression and young children's representations of family relationships.

Children's maternal, self, and marital representations were examined in 46 children 3 1/2 to 7 years old using the MacArthur Story Stem Battery. Children drawn from agencies serving battered women expressed fewer positive representations of their mothers and themselves, were more likely to portray interparental conflict as escalating, and were more avoidant and less coherent in their narratives about family interactions than children from a nonviolent community sample. Interparental aggression uniquely predicted representations of conflict escalation and avoidance after accounting for parent-child aggression, and the two types of aggression had additive effects in predicting positive maternal representations. The results suggest that witnessing aggression in the family affects children's developing beliefs about close relationships and may be a process by which these experiences give rise to later problems in social and emotional functioning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship between overt and fantasy aggression as a function of maternal response to aggression.

44 boys and their mothers were studied in order to explore the relationship between fantasy and overt expressions of aggression as a function of maternal attitudes and practices towards aggression. "Support was found for the hypothesis that under conditions of maternal encouragement of aggression, a greater degree of correspondence exists between fantasy and overt aggression of children than under conditions of maternal discouragement of aggression." 19 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Enhanced maternal aggression and associated changes in neuropeptide gene expression in multiparous rats.

Although it has often been speculated that prior reproductive experience improves subsequent maternal care, few studies have examined specific changes in behavior during a 1st versus 2nd lactation. During lactation, mothers display heightened aggression toward male intruders, purportedly to protect vulnerable young. In the current study, maternal aggression was examined in primiparous and age-matched multiparous females on postpartum days 5 (PPD5) and PPD15. Expression of oxytocin, oxytocin receptor, arginine vasopressin, arginine vasopressin V1a receptors, and corticotrophin-releasing hormone mRNA was measured following aggression testing at both time points using real-time quantitative PCR in brain regions previously implicated in the regulation of maternal aggression. Multiparity significantly enhanced maternal aggression on PPD5 but not on PPD15. In addition, this increased aggression was associated with region- and gene-specific changes in mRNA expression. These findings indicate that reproductive experience enhances maternal aggression, an effect that may be mediated by region-specific alterations in neuropeptidergic activity. The adaptations observed in multiparous females provide an innate model for the study of neuroplasticity in the regulation of aggression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maternal permissiveness toward aggression and subsequent TAT aggression.

To test the hypothesis that the effect of permissiveness towards the expression of aggression in childhood extends into adulthood, 2 groups of Ss (100 college girls), distinguished by the degree of maternal permissiveness towards the expression of aggression (derived from questionnaires answered by the mothers), were placed in an aggression-arousing situation (inducted by making highly insulting and deprecating comments to them). Subsequently, Ss were asked to respond to TAT cards (selected on the basis of being high or low in aggressiveness and presented on a screen for 20 sec.). Ss reared under conditions of high maternal permissiveness responded more frequently with aggressive responses to the "aggressive" cards than did the low permissive group. The low permissive group felt more uncomfortable and dysphoric than Ss reared under conditions of greater permissiveness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maternal response to childhood aggression and subsequent anti-Semitism.

2 measures of anti-Semitism were obtained from 39 college women. Information concerning maternal handling of their childhood aggression was obtained from their mothers. The results showed that relatively stern maternal discipline toward childhood aggressive behavior was associated with a relatively high level of anti-Semitism in the women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Continuity of paternal social support and depressive symptoms among new mothers.

The present study examined trajectories of paternal support and maternal depressive symptoms over the first two years after the birth of a child. First-time mothers (N=582) were assessed 6 times during the first 24 months of their child's life. At each assessment they reported on a number of ways in which their child's father provided support, and at three of the assessments, their own depressive symptomatology was assessed. Latent growth curve models revealed that while higher support was related to lower depressive symptomatology, both paternal support and maternal depression tended to decrease over time. The relationships between paternal support and maternal depression are complex and suggest the importance of considering the multiple ways that parents influence one another over time. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intergenerational transmission of relationship aggression: A prospective longitudinal study.

The present study examined whether physical and verbal aggression in the family of origin were associated with similar patterns of aggression in young adult couples. Hypotheses were tested using a sample of 213 focal individuals who were followed from adolescence to adulthood. Results suggested that aggression in the family when focal participants were adolescents predicted aggression with romantic partners when participants were adults. The association between interparental aggression and later aggression in adult romantic unions was partially mediated through parents' aggression to focal participants when they were adolescents. Both physical and verbal aggression revealed the same pattern of findings. All together, these findings are consistent with a developmental-interactional perspective (Capaldi & Gorman-Smith, 2003) concerning the developmental origins of aggression in intimate relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

GABAA receptor signaling in the lateral septum regulates maternal aggression in mice.

Maternal aggression (maternal defense) is a fierce aggression produced by lactating females toward intruders that plays an important role in protection of vulnerable offspring. Enhancement of GABAA receptor signaling by benzodiazepines increases maternal aggression, and we recently found indirect evidence that lateral septum (LS) could be a key site where benzodiazepines elevate aggression. In this study, we directly tested the hypothesis that activation of GABAA receptors in LS would promote maternal aggression while inhibition of this receptor would decrease aggression. Site-directed injections to LS were made using the GABAA receptor antagonist, bicuculline (3–30 ng), or the GABAA receptor agonists, chlordiazepoxide, a benzodiazepine (2.5–5 μg), and muscimol (0.05–5 ng). Maternal aggression and other behavioral measures were then evaluated in lactating mice. Neither GABAA receptor agonist elevated aggression, which could reflect a ceiling effect. However, 7 ng of the GABAA receptor antagonist, bicuculline, in LS significantly decreased maternal aggression without altering other maternal behaviors or light-dark box performance, suggesting some GABAA receptor signaling in LS is required for full maternal aggression expression. Together, these results confirm a role for GABAA receptor signaling in LS in the regulation of maternal aggression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship separation for young, at-risk couples: Prediction from dyadic aggression.

Dyadic physical aggression in the relationships of 158 young, at-risk couples was examined as a predictor of relationship separation over the course of 6 years. A high prevalence of physical aggression and a high rate of separation were found, with 80% of couples engaging in physical aggression (as reported by either partner or as observed) and 62% separating over time. As predicted, physical aggression significantly increased the likelihood of relationship dissolution, even after accounting for psychological aggression, prior relationship satisfaction, and relationship contextual factors (length of relationship, relationship type, and children in the household). Of the contextual factors, relationship type was predictive of relationship dissolution: Married couples were least likely to dissolve their relationships compared with cohabiting and dating couples. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Child-rearing antecedents of intergenerational relations in young adulthood: A prospective study.

Data gathered from mothers on parenting and family climate when almost 1,000 children in the Dunedin, New Zealand, longitudinal study were 3, 5, 7, 9, 13, and 15 years of age were used to predict intergenerational relations between young adult children (age 26) and their middle-aged parents. Analyses focused on distinct developmental epochs revealed greater prediction from the middle-childhood and early-adolescent periods than from the early-childhood years; most indicated that more supportive family environments and child-rearing experiences in the family of origin forecasted more positive and less negative parent-child relationships (in terms of contact, closeness, conflict, reciprocal assistance) in young adulthood, though associations were modest in magnitude. Some evidence indicated that (modestly) deleterious effects on intergenerational relations of experiencing relatively unsupportive child-rearing environments in 1 but not 2 (of 3) developmental periods studied could be offset by relatively supportive family environments in the remaining developmental periods. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Work experiences and personality development in young adulthood.

This longitudinal study provides an analysis of the relationship between personality traits and work experiences with a special focus on the relationship between changes in personality and work experiences in young adulthood. Longitudinal analyses uncovered 3 findings. First, measures of personality taken at age 18 predicted both objective and subjective work experiences at age 26. Second, work experiences were related to changes in personality traits from age 18 to 26. Third, the predictive and change relations between personality traits and work experiences were corresponsive: Traits that "selected" people into specific work experiences were the same traits that changed in response to those same work experiences. The relevance of the findings to theories of personality development is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Examining the correlates of psychological aggression among a community sample of couples.

In this study, the authors examined the correlates of psychological aggression victimization and perpetration among a community sample of 145 heterosexual couples. For both women and men, psychological aggression victimization was associated with greater psychological distress, anxiety, and physical health symptoms beyond the effects of physical aggression. Psychological aggression victimization was also uniquely associated with higher levels of depression for women. Trait anger and poor relationship adjustment were the strongest correlates of psychological aggression perpetration across genders. Childhood father-to-child and father-to-mother aggressions were associated with psychological aggression perpetration for men only, suggesting possible distinct etiologies across genders. These data highlight the importance of the further development of models for psychological aggression in both women and men. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conceptual model for maternal behavior among polydrug cocaine-using mothers: The role of postnatal cocaine use and maternal depression.

This study examined the association between maternal cocaine use and maternal behavior and tested a conceptual model predicting maternal insensitivity during mother-infant interactions. Participants included 130 mother-infant dyads (68 cocaine-exposed and 62 noncocaine-exposed) who were recruited after birth and assessed at 4-8 weeks of infant age. Results of model testing indicated that when the effects of prenatal cocaine use were examined in the context of polydrug use, maternal psychopathology, maternal childhood history, and infant birth weight, only postnatal cocaine use and maternal depression/anxiety were unique predictors of maternal insensitivity during mother-infant interactions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of positive reinforcement of aggression on subjects differing in initial aggression level.

60 females, who were ostensibly serving as assistants in a learning study, were required to deliver electric shocks as punishments for "errors" to a confederate of E. Ss selected the intensity of the shock they delivered. During a training period experimental Ss were verbally reinforced for delivering shocks of relatively high intensity. Pretest-to-posttest increases in intensity of shock were significantly greater for experimental Ss than for control, nonreinforced, Ss. This increase was, however, confined to Ss who used an intially high or medium level of intensity; Ss initially using low initial intensities were not influenced by the reinforcement procedure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Persuasibility in young children as a function of aggressive motivation and aggression conflict.

This study investigating the dynamic bases of the reported negative relationship of overt aggression to persuasibility postulated that low persuasibility is associated with an overtly aggressive orientation, high persuasibility with a defensive need to inhibit strong aggressive motivation, and medium presuasibility with a relative absence of aggressive motivation and inhibitions against aggression. 3 groups of 15 were selected from an initial sample of 169 1st-grade boys for high, medium, and low presuasibility, and were compared on aggressive motivation and an aggression conflict ratio. The results are that High and Low persuasible (P) Ss have more aggressive motivation than Medium P Ss; High P Ss have a smaller aggression conflict ratio than Low P Ss. The results thus support the initial postulates. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)