Testing the incentive-sensitization theory with at-risk drinkers: Wanting, liking, and alcohol consumption.

Motivational models of addiction typically propose that alcohol and drugs are desired because of their hedonic effects (i.e., increasing pleasure or reducing distress). In contrast, the incentive-sensitization theory proposes that wanting motivation and liking motivation are separable and that after repeated substance use, motivation shifts from liking to wanting. Using a sample of 85 at-risk drinkers (as defined by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism), in the current study we examined the separability of liking motivation and wanting motivation for alcohol and whether years of drinking experience was associated with an increased role for wanting motivation and a decreased role for liking motivation. Consumption was measured with a free-drinking task. Wanting motivation was assessed immediately before drinking, and liking was assessed immediately after drinking had begun. The results indicated that (a) wanting motivation predicted variance of consumption unique from that accounted for by liking motivation, (b) longer drinking experience was associated with a decreased relation between liking motivation and consumption, and (c) longer drinking experience was not associated with an increased relation between wanting motivation and consumption. The results provide partial support for the incentive-sensitization theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Accessibility of Motivational Tendencies Toward Alcohol: Approach, Avoidance, and Disinhibited Drinking.

Problematic drinking has been proposed to result from an overactivation of approach motivation toward the beneficial effects of alcohol and an underactivation of avoidance motivation away from aversive consequences of heavy alcohol use. The authors of the present study used a sequential priming task (R. H. Fazio, J. R. Jackson, B. C. Dunton, & C. J. Williams, 1995) to examine the extent to which alcohol cues automatically activate approach and avoidance motivational tendencies in college drinkers. Hierarchical regression analyses indicate that number of binge episodes and alcohol problems are correlated with weak associations between alcohol cues and avoidance motivation but not with strong associations between alcohol cues and approach motivation. Implications for understanding the self-regulation of alcohol use in college drinkers are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Good self-control moderates the effect of mass media on adolescent tobacco and alcohol use: Tests with studies of children and adolescents.

Objective: To investigate whether self-control moderates the effect of media influences on tobacco and alcohol use among youth and if so how this effect occurs. Design: In Study 1, a regional sample of 10-year olds (N = 290) was interviewed in households; attention to tobacco/alcohol advertising was assessed. In Study 2, a national sample of youth ages 10–14 years (N = 6,522) was surveyed by telephone; exposure to tobacco/alcohol use in movies was assessed. Good self-control was measured in both studies. Main Outcome Measures: Willingness to use substances and affiliation with peer substance users (Study 1); involvement in smoking or drinking (Study 2). Results: In Study 1, the effect of tobacco/alcohol advertising on predisposition for substance use was lower among persons scoring higher on good self-control. In Study 2, the effect of movie smoking/alcohol exposure on adolescent tobacco/alcohol use was lower, concurrently and prospectively, among persons scoring higher on good self-control. Moderation occurred primarily through reducing the effect of movie exposure on positive smoking/alcohol expectancies and the effect of expectancies on adolescent use; some evidence for moderation of social processes was also noted. Covariates in the analyses included demographics, sensation seeking, and IQ. Conclusion: Good self-control reduces the effect of adverse media influences on adolescent tobacco and alcohol use. Findings on the processes underlying this effect may be useful for media literacy and primary prevention programs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Alcohol demand, delayed reward discounting, and craving in relation to drinking and alcohol use disorders.

A behavioral economic approach to alcohol use disorders (AUDs) emphasizes both individual and environmental determinants of alcohol use. The current study examined individual differences in alcohol demand (i.e., motivation for alcohol under escalating conditions of price) and delayed reward discounting (i.e., preference for immediate small rewards compared to delayed larger rewards) in 61 heavy drinkers (62% with an AUD). In addition, based on theoretical accounts that emphasize the role of craving in reward valuation and preferences for immediate rewards, craving for alcohol was also examined in relation to these behavioral economic variables and the alcohol-related variables. Intensity of alcohol demand and delayed reward discounting were significantly associated with AUD symptoms, but not with quantitative measures of alcohol use, and were also moderately correlated with each other. Likewise, craving was significantly associated with AUD symptoms, but not with alcohol use, and was also significantly correlated with both intensity of demand and delayed reward discounting. These findings further emphasize the relevance of behavioral economic indices of motivation to AUDs and the potential importance of craving for alcohol in this relationship. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Movie exposure to alcohol cues and adolescent alcohol problems: A longitudinal analysis in a national sample.

The authors tested a theoretical model of how exposure to alcohol cues in movies predicts level of alcohol use (ever use plus ever and recent binge drinking) and alcohol-related problems. A national sample of younger adolescents was interviewed by telephone with 4 repeated assessments spaced at 8-month intervals. A structural equation modeling analysis performed for ever-drinkers at Time 3 (N = 961) indicated that, controlling for a number of covariates, movie alcohol exposure at Time 1 was related to increases in peer alcohol use and adolescent alcohol use at Time 2. Movie exposure had indirect effects to alcohol use and problems at Times 3 and 4 through these pathways, with direct effects to problems from Time 1 rebelliousness and Time 2 movie exposure also found. Prospective risk-promoting effects were also found for alcohol expectancies, peer alcohol use, and availability of alcohol in the home; protective effects were found for mother's responsiveness and for adolescent's school performance and self-control. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Action identification of drinking and self-control.

A number of investigators have proposed that self-control over addictive behaviors may be influenced by the way individuals mentally represent their actions. Previous research based on questionnaires has suggested that those who report higher-level identifications of their alcohol use behavior may exhibit more difficulty controlling their alcohol use (Wegner, Vallacher, & Dizadji, 1989). However, it is unclear whether this association is because of characteristic ways of mentally representing specific drinking events or the fact that those who have more impaired control consume more alcohol and drink across a broader array of situations. The current study sought to address this question by examining the association between impaired control over alcohol and action identification of drinking behavior in a structured laboratory drinking task. Ninety-one young adult hazardous drinkers (21–35 years) completed the Impaired Control Over Alcohol Scale (Heather, Tebbut, Mattick, & Zamir, 1993) and an alcohol consumption task. Participants then completed a Likert scale measure to assess action identification of their drinking behavior. Results showed that those who reported greater impaired control over alcohol experienced the drinking task at higher-level action identification even when accounting for alcohol consumption variables. These findings are consistent with the view that higher-level identification of alcohol use behavior may hinder self-control (Wegner et al., 1989), and that self-management approaches may be enhanced through strategies to address mental representation of action. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Good self-control as a buffering agent for adolescent substance use: An investigation in early adolescence with time-varying covariates.

This study tested the prediction that self-control would have buffering effects for adolescent substance use (tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana) with regard to 3 risk factors: family life events, adolescent life events, and peer substance use. Participants were a sample of public school students (N = 1,767) who were surveyed at 4 yearly intervals between 6th grade and 9th grade. Good self-control was assessed with multiple indicators (e.g., planning and problem solving). Results showed that the impact of all 3 risk factors on substance use was reduced among persons with higher scores on good self-control. Buffering was found in cross-sectional analyses with multiple regression and in longitudinal analyses in a latent growth model with time-varying covariates. Implications for addressing self-control in prevention programs are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-control and alcohol restraint: An initial application of the Self-Control Strength Model.

Individuals whose self-control strength is depleted through the prior exertion of self-control may consume more alcohol in situations that demand restraint. Male social drinkers either exerted self-control by suppressing their thoughts or did not exert self-control while doing arithmetic. They then sampled beer. Participants expected a driving test after drinking and therefore were motivated to limit their intake. Individuals who suppressed their thoughts consumed more and achieved a higher blood alcohol content than those who did arithmetic. The groups did not differ in mood, arousal, or frustration. Individuals higher in trait temptation to drink consumed more after suppressing their thoughts relative to those lower in trait temptation. Alcohol intake may be a function of temptation to drink and self-control strength. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Watching and drinking: Expectancies, prototypes, and friends’ alcohol use mediate the effect of exposure to alcohol use in movies on adolescent drinking.

Objective: To investigate the psychological processes that underlie the relation between exposure to alcohol use in media and adolescent alcohol use. Design: The design consisted of a structural equation modeling analysis of data from four waves of a longitudinal, nationally representative, random-digit dial telephone survey of adolescents in the United States. Main Outcome Measures: The main outcome measures were adolescent alcohol consumption and willingness to use alcohol. Tested mediators were alcohol-related norms, prototypes, expectancies, and friends’ use. Results: Alcohol prototypes, expectancies, willingness, and friends’ use of alcohol (but not perceived prevalence of alcohol use among peers) were significant mediators of the relation between movie alcohol exposure and alcohol consumption, even after controlling for demographic, child, and family factors associated with both movie exposure and alcohol consumption. Conclusion: Established psychological and interpersonal predictors of alcohol use mediate the effects of exposure to alcohol use in movies on adolescent alcohol consumption. The findings suggest that exposure to movie portrayals may operate through similar processes as other social influences, highlighting the importance of considering these exposures in research on adolescent risk behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Daily Fluctuations in Self-Control Demands and Alcohol Intake.

Predictions made by the self-control strength model were tested in a sample of underage social drinkers using ecological momentary assessment methodology. On days that participants experienced more self-control demands than average, they were more likely to violate their self-imposed drinking limit after controlling for mood and urge to drink. There was no relationship between self-control demands and urge or intention to drink, nor were self-control demands related to plans to limit drinking. When individuals planned to limit their alcohol intake, they were more affected by self-control demands than when they did not plan to limit their alcohol intake. Trait self-control moderated these relationships. Consistent with the self-control strength model, it appears that exerting self-control in nondrinking areas undermines individuals' capacity to exert self-control of drinking in daily life. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Examining the reciprocal relation between academic motivation and substance use: effects of family relationships, self-esteem, and general deviance

The present study examined the reciprocal relation between academic motivation and cigarette, alcohol, and marijuana use across four annual assessments during adolescence. Data were obtained from 435 adolescents, 13 to 17 years of age at the first assessment, and their mothers. The results of generalized estimating equations (GEE) analysis suggested inverse reciprocal relations across time between academic motivation and both cigarette and marijuana use. Reciprocal relations between academic motivation and alcohol use were not found, possibly due to the normative use of this substance. The examination of mediational mechanisms, including general deviance, self-esteem and family relationships, suggested that the relation between marijuana use and, for younger adolescents, cigarette use and academic motivation is not direct but is indirect, mediated through the general deviance of the adolescent. Deviance, self-esteem, and, for the youngest adolescents, family relationships mediated the relation between academic motivation and subsequent marijuana use.     

The role of self-control in early escalation of substance use: A time-varying analysis.

The research tested prediction about the role of temperament and self-control in early substance use (tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana). A sample of 1,526 participants was assessed in 6th grade (mean age=11.5 yrs) and followed with yearly assessments through 9th grade. Latent growth models showed temperament dimensions were related to early substance use, and their effects were mediated through generalized self-control ability. Time-varying effects indicated rate of growth in substance use was higher among participants who showed increases in poor self-control and lower among participants who showed increases in good self-control. Results in self-report data were corroborated by independent teacher ratings. Findings are discussed with reference to epigenetic models of protection and vulnerability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A Follow-Up Psychometric Analysis of the Self-Regulation Questionnaire.

Self-regulation skills, which subsume goal-directed behavior and short-term delay of gratification for long-term gains, have been shown to be differentially related to alcohol consumption and alcohol-related consequences. J. M. Brown, W. R. Miller, and L. A. Lawendowski (1999) described the Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ), and K. B. Carey, D. J. Neal, and S. E. Collins (2004) provided preliminary psychometric evidence for the SRQ and proposed a short version (SSRQ) of the measure. The goals of this study were to further examine the psychometric properties of the SSRQ. Participants (N = 237) were recruited from an introductory psychology course and completed a questionnaire packet that included the SSRQ. Factor analyses indicated that the SSRQ showed 2 distinct factors, an Impulse Control factor and a Goal Setting factor. Validity evidence showed differential patterns of relations between these 2 subscales and measures of self-control, alcohol use, and alcohol-related consequences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The self-control costs of fighting the temptation to drink.

Being exposed to the sight and smell of an alcoholic beverage and not drinking it should require self-control. On the basis of the self-control strength model (M. Muraven & R. F. Baumeister, 2000), exerting self-control should lead to poorer performance on subsequent self-control tasks. Using a cue exposure paradigm, the authors had 160 social drinkers alternately sniff water and alcohol. After each trial, the drinkers engaged in 2 self-control tasks: squeezing a handgrip and a self-stopping task. Performance on these tasks was worse after sniffing alcohol than after sniffing water. Mood and arousal did not mediate the effects; urge to drink was negatively related to outcomes. The effects were stronger for individuals high in trait temptation to drink. Resisting the temptation of drinking appears to undermine self-control capacity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social influences in motivated drinking among college students.

This study tested whether drinking motives mediate the relation between personality and alcohol use and whether these predictors affected drinking in these individuals' friends. College students and their friends participated in the study as dyads (n=43 dyads, 86 participants). Each person completed surveys and a 28-day experience sampling protocol. Structural equation analyses found that (a) social motives mediated the relation between extraversion and alcohol outcomes, (b) coping motives mediated the relation between neuroticism and alcohol outcomes, and (c) enhancement motives mediated the relation between extraversion and alcohol outcomes. Moreover, young adults' alcohol use, but not their problem use, was influenced by their own drinking motives as well as the drinking motives of their best friends. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality disorder symptoms, drinking motives, and alcohol use and consequences: Cross-sectional and prospective mediation.

Research shows high comorbidity between Cluster B personality disorders (PDs) and alcohol use disorders (AUDs). Studies on personality traits and alcohol use have identified coping and enhancement drinking motives as mediators in the relations among impulsivity, affective instability, and alcohol use. To the extent that PDs reflect extreme expression of these traits, drinking motives should mediate the relation between PD symptoms and alcohol involvement. This was tested using path models estimating the extent to which coping and enhancement drinking motives mediated the relation between Cluster B symptom counts and alcohol use and problems both concurrently and at a 5-year follow-up. Three hundred fifty-two adults participated in a multiwave study of risk for alcoholism (average age = 29 years at Wave 1). Enhancement motives mediated (a) the cross-sectional relation between Cluster B symptoms and drinking quantity/frequency, heavy drinking, total drinking consequences, dependence features, and AUD diagnosis and (b) the prospective relation to AUDs. Although coping motives mediated the relation between Cluster B symptoms and drinking consequences and dependence features cross-sectionally, prospective effects were limited to indirect effects through Time 1. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of Parent Support and Peer Support in Adolescent Substance Use: A Test of Mediated Effects.

This research tested comparative effects of parent and peer support on adolescent substance use (tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana) with data from 2 assessments of a multiethnic sample of 1,826 adolescents, mean age 12.3 years. Multiple regression analyses indicated that parental support was inversely related to substance use and that peer support was positively related to substance use, as a suppression effect. Structural modeling analyses indicated that effects of support were mediated through pathways involving good self-control, poor self-control, and risk-taking tendency; parent and peer support had different patterns of relations to these mediators. The mediators had pathways to substance use through positive and negative recent events and through peer affiliations. Effects for gender and ethnicity were also noted. Mechanisms of operation for parent and peer support are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sensation seeking, alcohol use, and sexual behaviors among sexually transmitted infection clinic patients in Cape Town, South Africa.

Alcohol use is associated with risks for HIV/AIDS. The association between alcohol and sexual risk may be accounted for by sensation seeking personality. However, sensation seeking in relation to substance use and HIV risk has not been examined in Africa. In this study, 292 men and 219 women receiving sexually transmitted infection (STI) diagnostic and treatment services in Cape Town, South Africa, completed anonymous behavioral surveys. Structural modeling was used to test a model of alcohol use and sensation seeking in relation to sexual risk behaviors. Results showed that sensation seeking and alcohol use in sexual contexts were related to HIV risks, controlling for gender and marital status. The association between sensation seeking and HIV risk was partly accounted for by alcohol use in proximity to sex. In contrast to studies conducted in the United States, sensation seeking was not related to alcohol-sex outcome expectancies. These findings suggest that alcohol use is an important HIV transmission risk factor for many STI clinic patients and that interventions for individuals who are characterized as sensation seekers are urgently needed in South Africa. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Positive alcohol expectancies partially mediate the relation between delinquent behavior and alcohol use: Generalizability across age, sex, and race in a cohort of 85,000 Iowa schoolchildren.

The extent to which positive alcohol expectancies mediated the association between delinquency and alcohol use, as well as whether age, sex, or race moderated this mediational relation, was examined in a population-based sample of Iowa schoolchildren (N = 85,301) from the 6th, 8th, and 11th grades. Positive alcohol expectancies were found to partially mediate the association between delinquency and alcohol use (alcohol use initiation, past-month drinking, and past-month binge drinking) across the full sample and in each age, sex, and racial subgroup. Evidence for moderated mediation was found for age and race but not for sex, which suggests that the magnitude of the relations among delinquency, positive alcohol expectancies, and alcohol involvement is different in younger versus older children and White, African American, Native American, Asian, and Hispanic youths but is similar in boys versus girls. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Moderators of the relation between substance use level and problems: Test of a self-regulation model in middle adolescence.

The authors tested predictions, derived from a self-regulation model, about variables moderating the relationship between level of substance use (tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana) and problems associated with use. Data were from two independent studies of adolescents, with mean ages of 15.4 and 15.5 years (Ns=1,699 and 1,225). Factor analysis indicated correlated dimensions of control problems and conduct problems. Protective moderation was found for variables indexing good self-control; risk-enhancing moderation was found for variables indexing poor self-control. These effects were generally independent of deviance-prone attitudes and externalizing symptomatology. Multiple-group structural modeling indicated moderation occurred for paths from life stress and coping motives and for paths from level to control and conduct problems. Moderation effects were also found for parental variables, peer variables, and academic competence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)