Tactile communication of speech: A review and an analysis.

Reviews research attempts to present the acoustic speech signal to the skin by means of various electromechanical devices. 2 explanations for the relative failure of these speech-to-tactile transformations are critically examined: a current theory that speech is a special code necessarily incomprehensible to the skin; and evidence that tactile masking effects preclude analysis of a signal as complex as speech by the skin. Both of these explanations are rejected. It is suggested that the displays reviewed failed to provide the stimulus structure necessary for effective tactile perception. The stimulus requirements for perceptual organization by the skin of various levels of linguistic structure are discussed. Suggestions are made for the future development of tactile displays of speech that may be comprehended at rapid rates. (93 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychostimulants and children: A review and analysis.

Effects of psychostimulant medication for children are reviewed in 3 areas: motor activity, attention and cognition, and social-adaptive behavior. Prevailing misconceptions about these drugs and the children who take them are examined, as are the disparities between findings on short- and long-term effects. The dearth of knowledge and theory regarding psychological concomitants of stimulant medication is noted, and a sociocognitive analysis of drug effects is proposed. Recent research on causal attributions is reviewed, and a set of hypotheses and research strategies is developed, centering on the proposition that stimulant medication is a powerful source of attributional change in both the child and others. A major conclusion is that predicting and enhancing medication effects may depend on understanding and modifying the social and cognitive sequelae of drug intervention. A further suggestion is that the prevalence and import of psychoactive drug use make this a fruitful area for testing attribution and expectancy theories. (31/2 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Implicit measures: A normative analysis and review.

Implicit measures can be defined as outcomes of measurement procedures that are caused in an automatic manner by psychological attributes. To establish that a measurement outcome is an implicit measure, one should examine (a) whether the outcome is causally produced by the psychological attribute it was designed to measure, (b) the nature of the processes by which the attribute causes the outcome, and (c) whether these processes operate automatically. This normative analysis provides a heuristic framework for organizing past and future research on implicit measures. The authors illustrate the heuristic function of their framework by using it to review past research on the 2 implicit measures that are currently most popular: effects in implicit association tests and affective priming tasks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Examining prepotent response suppression in aging: A kinematic analysis.

Two experiments were designed to explore how age differences in conflict detection may contribute to poorer motor performance. In each experiment, 12 young adults (YAs) and 12 older adults (OAs) performed a finger sequencing task in which the frequency of specific critical transitions was varied. These critical transitions were contrasted with violation transitions to assess the ability to detect a conflict in response requirements. In addition to accuracy and reaction time, the authors used kinematic data to parse movements into planning and motor execution phases. OAs were differentially slower to respond to violations than YAs, in line with other research on executive control, prepotent response suppression, and aging. Kinematic analyses revealed that YAs executed movements more rapidly on violation than critical transitions, whereas OAs executed movements at the same speed regardless of response predictability and increased planning time. The authors argue that OAs are unable to reprogram prepotent movement plans to overcome slowed movement planning in cognitively challenging situations. The results are discussed in terms of the influence of age-related cognitive inefficiency on motor control. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Saccadic reaction times: a statistical analysis of multimodal distributions

The distributions of saccadic reaction times (SRT) often deviate from unimodal normal distributions. An excess-mass procedure was used to detect peaks in 963 data sets containing 90,927 reaction times from 170 subjects. About 55% showed one, 30% two, 12% three and 3% four peaks. According to their clustering along the reaction time scale the modes could be classified into express (90-120 msec), fast regular (135-170 msec) and slow regular (200-220 msec) modes. Among the unimodal distributions 29% had peaks in the range of the express mode and 46% had peaks in the range of the fast regular mode. Therefore, 87% of the data sets support the notion of saccadic reaction time distributions being the superposition of three modes. All experimental distributions were fitted by as many gamma distributions as determined by the excess-mass test. The significance of the multimodality for saccade generation processes is discussed.     

Saccadic Inhibition in Reading.

In 5 experiments, participants read text that was briefly replaced by a transient image for 33 ms at random intervals. A decrease in saccadic frequency, referred to as saccadic inhibition, occurred as early as 60-70 ms following the onset of abrupt changes in visual input. It was demonstrated that the saccadic inhibition was influenced by the saliency of the visual event (Experiment 3) and was not produced in response to abrupt but irrelevant auditory stimuli (Experiment 1). Display changes restricted to an area either inside or outside the perceptual span required for normal reading produced strong saccadic inhibition (Experiment 2). Finally, Experiments 4 and 5 demonstrated higher level cognitive or attentional modulation of the saccadic inhibition effect. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Just teasing: A conceptual analysis and empirical review.

Drawing on E. Goffman's concepts of face and strategic interaction, the authors define a tease as a playful provocation in which one person comments on something relevant to the target. This approach encompasses the diverse behaviors labeled teasing, clarifies previous ambiguities, differentiates teasing from related practices, and suggests how teasing can lead to hostile or affiliative outcomes. The authors then integrate studies of the content of teasing. Studies indicate that norm violations and conflict prompt teasing. With development, children tease in playful ways, particularly around the ages of 11 and 12 years, and understand and enjoy teasing more. Finally, consistent with hypotheses concerning contextual variation in face concerns, teasing is more frequent and hostile when initiated by high-status and familiar others and men, although gender differences are smaller than assumed. The authors conclude by discussing how teasing varies according to individual differences and culture. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

School-based, behavioral self-management: A review and analysis.

Evaluated behavioral self-management interventions with elementary school students. Studies were selected from PsycINFO and ERIC databases if they investigated the use of school-based, behavioral, self-management interventions with children of normal intellectual functioning. The review presents an analysis of this technology including treatment effect size, generalization, social validity, and cost-effectiveness data. Results indicate that observation, evaluation, and selection and administration of reinforcers were the intervention components most frequently student-managed. Additionally, results show a positive relationship between the degree of student management and treatment effect size. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Marital disruption as a stressor: A review and analysis.

Describes some of the major demographic trends in the field of marital disruption and provides an analysis of the evidence linking separation and divorce with a wide variety of physical and emotional disorders. Separation and divorce appear to be profoundly stressful life events. Hypotheses that have been advanced to account for the strong associations between marital disruption and emotional disorder are critically examined. Studies of problems faced by persons undergoing marital disruption and studies of remedial programs are evaluated, and major unresolved issues are discussed. (4? p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Implosive therapy: A critical analysis of Morganstern's review.

Presents a critique of K. P. Morganstern's (see record 1973-31818-001) review of implosive therapy and "flooding" literature. It is concluded that (a) the majority of negative results published by investigators using implosive therapy with analog Ss occurred with taped therapy presentations which violate the implosive therapy procedure in 2 important ways, (b) at the analog level only 1 study provided negative results with an actual therapist, (c) all patient therapy studies cited reported that an implosive therapy or flooding procedure was effective, (d) only 1 study using a live therapist reported that a systematic desensitization procedure was more effective than implosive therapy, and (e) whether it was the implosive therapy technique per se that produced the positive findings is still unclear. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attitude-behavior relations: A theoretical analysis and review of empirical research.

Examines research on the relation between attitude and behavior in light of the correspondence between attitudinal and behavioral entities. Such entities are defined by their target, action, context, and time elements. A review of available empirical research supports the contention that strong attitude–behavior relations are obtained only under high correspondence between at least the target and action elements of the attitudinal and behavioral entities. This conclusion is compared with the rather pessimistic assessment of the utility of the attitude concept found in much contemporary social psychological literature. (4? p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stimulus compounding in free-operant and classical conditioning: A review and analysis.

Reviews previous free-operant and classical conditioning studies reporting additive summation, suppressive summation, and response averaging to compounded stimuli. A stimulus control model applicable to additive and suppressive summation in both paradigms is presented. A symmetrical composite-stimulus continuum, defined by the on-off states of the discriminative or conditioned stimuli controlling behavior in training, is seen to be common to both types of summation, with the functions of the all-on and all-off continuum extremes interchangeable. Moreover, additive summation, suppressive summation, and response averaging appear to be (a) dependent on discrimination training; and (b) determined by the history of, and immediate relations between, response outputs and reinforcement densities conditioned to particular stimulus values along the composite training dimension. This evidence and the derived stimulus control model are used to functionally relate summation to generalization peak shift. It is suggested that these additive, suppressive, and averaging effects to compounded stimuli might further help in clarifying, and in placing in contextual perspective, what are currently thought of as "excitatory" and "inhibitory" mechanisms in learning. (72 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral suppression of seriously disruptive behavior in psychotic and retarded patients: A review of punishment and its alternatives.

Reviews the use of punishment procedures to suppress seriously disruptive behavior. Although differential reinforcement of behaviors incompatible with disruptive behavior is attractive to many because it does not involve aversive procedures, it has shown mixed results and may be effective only when combined with other procedures. Contingent removal of reinforcement (timeout) has been found moderately effective for dealing with self-stimulation and aggression but is of more limited value in treating severe self-injury. Overcorrection also has a beneficial effect on a variety of serious management problems. It is suggested that although electric shock has been the focus of considerable debate, it may have value under certain conditions. Research on generalization, maintenance, and side effects of these procedures is reviewed, and ethical issues are examined. (188 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Alcohol challenge with sons of alcoholics: A critical review and analysis.

Studies are reviewed in which response to acute administration of alcohol was compared between individuals with and without family histories of alcoholism (FH+, FH–). This research represents a search for a psychobiological marker for alcoholism. A methodological critique of the procedures reported in this literature is then presented. Finally, a conceptual model is suggested in which differences in the response to alcohol between FH+ individuals and FH– individuals must be understood in relation to time after drinking alcohol. This Newtonian differentiator model proposes that sons of alcoholics exhibit acute sensitization as blood alcohol level rises and acute tolerance as blood alcohol level falls, compared with sons of nonalcoholics. Therefore, FH+ Ss find alcohol more rewarding because they accentuate the pleasurable, excitatory aspects of initial intoxication and attenuate the feelings of anxiety and depression that predominate as blood alcohol levels drop. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Childhood sex-typed behavior and sexual orientation: A conceptual analysis and quantitative review.

This article reviewed research examining the association between childhood sex-typed behavior and sexual orientation. Prospective studies suggest that childhood cross-sex-typed behavior is strongly predictive of adult homosexual orientation for men; analogous studies for women have not been performed. Though methodologically more problematic, retrospective studies are useful in determining how many homosexual individuals displayed cross-sex behavior in childhood. The relatively large body of retrospective studies comparing childhood sex-typed behavior in homosexual and heterosexual men and women was reviewed quantitatively. Effect sizes were large for both men and women, with men's significantly larger. Future research should elaborate the causes of the association between childhood sex-typed behavior and sexual orientation and identify correlates of within-orientation differences in childhood sex-typed behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age-related differences in work attitudes and behavior: A review and conceptual analysis.

Presents a theoretical framework for understanding age-related differences in work attitudes and behavior. Based on a review of more than 185 research studies, age-related differences in 3 major categories of variables are examined: work attitudes, work behaviors, and values, needs, and preferences. The work attitudes include overall job satisfaction; satisfaction with work itself, pay, promotions, co-workers, and supervision; job involvement; internal work motivation; organizational commitment; and turnover intention. Among the behavioral characteristics are performance, turnover, absenteeism, and accidents. Consistent age-related differences are reported for a number of work attitudes and behaviors, but conceptual and methodological difficulties preclude identifying causal factors in the relationship between age and work attitudes and behaviors. Some theoretical orientations having utility for guiding theory development and research on age differences are discussed. (6 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Child-abusive parents: An empirical review and analysis.

Reviews 20 studies comparing child-abusive and nonabusive parents on psychological and behavioral dimensions to determine relevant distinctions between these populations. Studies were included in which Ss were under the purview of child-protection agencies, well-known self-report measures were used, controls for demographic factors were in place, and a complete presentation of results was given. Results show that, whereas few studies found significant differences between abusers and nonabusers on traditional psychological dimensions, abusers were more likely to report stress-related symptoms, such as depression and health problems, that were linked to the parenting role. Three comparative studies of family interactions indicate that abusers displayed reciprocal patterns of behavior with their children and spouses that were proportionately more aversive and less prosocial than nonabusers. Child abuse is viewed as an interactive process involving both parental competence and situational demands. Attention is given to methodological refinement and prevention efforts derived from these findings. (3 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Life reflection: A social–cognitive analysis of life review.

Life review and reminiscence are 2 concepts used to describe the phenomenon of people reflecting on their lives. Rather than used synonymously, these 2 concepts need to be distinguished on the basis of a social–cognitive process analysis. For that purpose, life reflection is introduced as a new term. Evidence shows that life reflection is a social–cognitive process that begins in adolescence and continues across the life span. It serves different functions across the life span, but at all ages it contributes to self-insight and a self-critical perspective. Striving for new insights about oneself and about life in general is challenging and taxing. Reflecting together with a trusted person, thus, may facilitate the process. A study testing and supporting some of these propositions is reported. Results are discussed in the context of lifespan theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Compassion: An evolutionary analysis and empirical review.

What is compassion? And how did it evolve? In this review, we integrate 3 evolutionary arguments that converge on the hypothesis that compassion evolved as a distinct affective experience whose primary function is to facilitate cooperation and protection of the weak and those who suffer. Our empirical review reveals compassion to have distinct appraisal processes attuned to undeserved suffering; distinct signaling behavior related to caregiving patterns of touch, posture, and vocalization; and a phenomenological experience and physiological response that orients the individual to social approach. This response profile of compassion differs from those of distress, sadness, and love, suggesting that compassion is indeed a distinct emotion. We conclude by considering how compassion shapes moral judgment and action, how it varies across different cultures, and how it may engage specific patterns of neural activation, as well as emerging directions of research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)