Continuous measurement of visible persistence.

In the synchrony judgment paradigm, Ss judge whether a click precedes or follows the onset of a light flash and, on other trials, whether or not a click precedes light termination. The interclick interval defines the duration of visible persistence. An elaboration of this method was developed that consisted of 2 phases: In Phase 1, the luminance of a reference stimulus was psychophysically matched to the peak brightness of the test flash. Five luminance values between .1 and 1.0 of the reference stimulus were used subsequently. In Phase 2, a random 1 of the 5 reference stimuli, a test flash, and a click were presented; the Ss judged whether the click occurred before or after the brightness of test flash reached the reference value (on onset trials) or decayed below it (on termination trials). This method was validated on 3 male graduate students with test stimuli whose luminance rose and decayed slowly in time, and then was used to trace out the precise subjective rise and decay (temporal brightness response function) of brief flashes. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A homeostatic model of Pavlovian conditioning: Tolerance to scopolamine-induced adipsia.

In Phase 1 of Exp I, with 60 male Sprague-Dawley rats, Ss given access to water while under the influence of scopolamine developed adipsic tolerance, but Ss denied access to water in the drug state did not. In Phase 2, Ss displayed adipsic tolerance only when scopolamine was administered with cues associated with previous drug injections. In Phase 3, adipsic-tolerant Ss showed a polydipsic response to an injection of phenobarbital relative to nontolerant Ss with the same pharmacological history. In Exp II, with 48 male Sprague-Dawley rats, the effect of deprivation level on the Pavlovian extinction of adipsic tolerance was assessed. Ss satiated with water during extinction showed a loss of adipsic tolerance, but water-deprived Ss did not. The proposed model is discussed in relation to (1) tolerance in other response systems such as morphine analgesia, (2) theories of extinction for nonpharmacological Pavlovian conditioning, and (3) homeostatic regulation and incentive motivation. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Motivated skepticism: Use of differential decision criteria for preferred and nonpreferred conclusions.

Three experiments show that information consistent with a preferred conclusion is examined less critically than information inconsistent with a preferred conclusion, and consequently, less information is required to reach the former than the latter. In Study 1, Ss judged which of 2 students was most intelligent, believing they would work closely with the one they chose. Ss required less information to decide that a dislikable student was less intelligent than that he was more intelligent. In Studies 2 and 3, Ss given an unfavorable medical test result took longer to decide their test result was complete, were more likely to retest the validity of their result, cited more life irregularities that might have affected test accuracy, and rated test accuracy as lower than did Ss receiving more favorable diagnoses. Results suggest that a core component of self-serving bias is the differential quantity of cognitive processing given to preference-consistent and preference-inconsistent information. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conceptual differentiation: Quantity and pouring-time.

On the basis of an analysis of the theoretical utility of H. Werner's "concept differentiation," it was hypothesized that nonconservation performance on a modified conservation task could be determined by a logically irrelevant but conceptually undifferentiated cue related to magnitude, specifically rate of pouring. As in the conventional procedure, 57 51/2-71/2 yr. old kindergarten and 1st grade Ss, judged the equality of liquid in 2 identical beakers. The contents of these beakers were then poured simultaneously into 2 tall beakers hidden, except for the tops, behind a screen. In the control group, the liquid was poured at the same rate into both tall beakers, while for the experimental groups, it was poured more quickly from 1 than from the other, resulting in a longer pouring time into 1 of the beakers. Ss observing the differential pouring rates almost without exception judged that the beaker which had taken longer to pour now contained more liquid. Results suggest that Ss' notions of magnitude were not yet completely differentiated into such concepts as time, rate, quantity, and height. (French Summary) (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-punitive running in the rat following start box fear conditioning: Shock intensity effects.

In Phase 1 of an experiment with 240 female hooded rats, buzzer-alone presentations or buzzer-shock pairings were given in the start box of a 4-ft straight alley. Phase 2 consisted of runway test trials during which there was no shock in the alley or there was shock in the last 2 ft. Shock levels employed in each phase were 0, 40, 53, and 70 v. All Phase 1 nonshock Ss ceased running by Trial 3. In general, for Ss shocked in Phase 1, running speed and the number of Ss completing all 60 trials were greater for shocked than nonshocked Phase 2 conditions. In addition, the stronger the Phase 1 shock, the greater the number completing all trials and the faster the speeds. Phase 2 shock intensity was not a significant factor. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of external evaluation on artistic creativity.

Examined the conditions under which the imposition of an extrinsic constraint upon performance of an activity can lead to decrements in creativity. 95 female undergraduates worked on an art activity either with or without the expectation of external evaluation. In addition, Ss were asked to focus on either the creative or the technical aspects of the activity or they were given no specific focus. Finally, some Ss expecting evaluation were given explicit instructions on how to make their artworks. As predicted, Ss in the evaluation groups produced artworks significantly lower on judged creativity than did Ss in the nonevaluation control groups. The only evaluation group for which this pattern was reversed had received explicit instructions on how to make artworks that would be judged creative. A possible reconciliation of these 2 disparate results is proposed, and practical implications are discussed. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of out-group cues in determining social identity.

Examined the role of out-group cues in determining social identity and guiding behavior in 2 experiments with 131 undergraduates. In Exp I, Ss were exposed to a cue either of an in-group (Ss' college), a relevant out-group (a rival college), or an irrelevant out-group (a baseball team). Ss examined a list of words and were later asked to recognize those they had seen from a larger list in which words related to the 3 groups were embedded. Results indicate that Ss made more false recognitions of in-group related words when a relevant out-group was salient than when an irrelevant out-group was salient. Exp II tested a behavioral implication of Exp I: Out-group salience increases adherence to an in-group norm. In the 1st phase of Exp II, Ss were divided into 2 groups and deliberated 2 civil suits. Ss' in-group favored the plaintiffs for both cases. Ss were divided into new groups for the 2nd phase, and the same procedure was followed. This time, however, the in-group favored the defendants. In the 3rd phase, Ss were exposed to a cue either of the out-group in Phase 1 or Phase 2. Ss' judgments for 2 new cases were biased in the direction of the norm of the in-group that was associated with the salient out-group. Ss favored the plaintiff (or defendant) when the 1st (or 2nd) out-group was salient. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Consistency of seizure frequency estimates across time, methods, and observers.

32 persons with intractable, partial seizures and 17 observers participated in a 2-phase assessment procedure designed to assess the consistency of seizure frequency reports across observers, time, and methods. During Phase 1, Ss and observers provided retrospective seizure frequency estimates for 2 consecutive 30-day intervals. During Phase 2, Ss and observers completed a daily seizure diary for 30 days. Retrospective estimates were highly stable over 2 mo, and substantial consistency was found between 2 different recording methods (recall vs diary) for Ss with epilepsy. Observers' retrospective estimates were only moderately correlated with their prospective diary counts. Agreement between Ss' and observers' retrospective reports was high. Seizure frequency reports of Ss with partial epilepsy showed consistency across time. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Seeing versus imagining movement in depth.

Six undergraduate students participated in 2 experiments to determine whether the same mechanisms are activated during perception of real vs apparent motion. In Exp 1, Ss judged the quality of rigid motion between pairs of 3-dimensional drawings that differed by a rotation in depth. Rated quality of motion decreased with increasing angular disparity between the figures and with decreasing stimulus duration, regardless of whether the figures were vertical or oblique. In Exp 2, Ss participated in a mental rotation task using the same stimuli and angular disparities. Ss took longer to make decisions about obliquely aligned than vertically aligned stimuli. Results imply that perceived vs imagined movement through the same trajectory involves different processes. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparison of behavior modification approaches to smoking reduction.

Compared 2 experimental treatments for the modification of cigarette smoking with 2 control conditions, using a refined methodology for collecting daily smoking records and providing for an examination of therapist effects. 65 undergraduates served as Ss. The 1st experimental treatment employed a stimulus satiation technique in which Ss smoked 3 cigarettes on each smoking occasion. The 2nd, a hierarchy approach, involved gradual reduction beginning with the period of the day judged easiest for relinquishing cigarettes. In 1 control treatment, Ss used a pill designed to coat the mouth to make cigarettes aversive; the other control groups were instructed to quit entirely. Each of the 4 conditions showed its own characteristic reduction curve and all reduced to a mean level below 25% of base. There was a significant effect of therapist during treatment, but none at 6-mo follow-up by which time all groups had shown a considerable relapse. (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modeling and instructions in training for counselor empathy.

Assessed the relative contributions of modeling and instructions to training of counselor empathy in a factorial design incorporating 2 instruction conditions (instructions or no instructions) and 3 modeling conditions (high-empathy model, low-empathy model, or no model). Ss were 68 clergymen from various religious denominations. Ss wrote responses to a taped client in Phase 1, a training phase, and conducted an interview with a client (actor) in Phase 2, a generalization phase. Instructions had no effect on empathy offered by Ss, but Ss hearing a high-empathy model showed significantly higher empathy in Phase 1 responses than all other Ss. Findings were not significant in Phase 2. Reasons for lack of generalization and implications for further research and training are noted. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptual concommitants of racial attitudes in urban grade-school children.

Investigated children's racial attitudes and their concomitant perceptual responses in a 2-part study. In Phase 1, a total of 400 2nd, 4th and 6th graders at 2 racially integrated urban elementary schools were given a battery of 4 attitude tests (e.g., the Projective Prejudice Test). In Phase 2, a subsample of 96 Ss were classified into high- and low-prejudice groups on the basis of attitude scores and judged the similarity of pictures of facial pairs. Stimuli varied as to color, shade, expression, and hair type. A 4-way factorial design was employed (Grade * Prejudice Level * Race of Subject * Race of Examiner). Findings indicate that the various ways of assessing Ss' racial attitudes were not equivalent. Some instruments were strongly affected by developmental and racial factors, whereas others were not. Correlations between indices were low. Findings in Phase 2 indicated that racial attitudes do have perceptual correlates, particularly for white children. Race-related cues were accentuated by high-prejudice children, whereas non-race-related ones were less salient. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychology of drivers in traffic accidents.

50 automobile drivers whose driving involved them in accidents serious enough to require hospitalization were paired with 50 drivers without accident histories but matched according to sex, approximate age, race, and educational level. The Ss were compared on the basis of their driving experiences and performance on written tests. The accident victims differed from the comparison Ss in a higher incidence of previous traffic violations but were not distinguishable from the comparison Ss on any written tests. The accident Ss were similar to the "safe" drivers in describing themselves as much closer to "expert" than "very poor" on a driving performance continuum. In fixing the responsibility for the accidents and in estimating their driving competence at the time of the accidents, the accident Ss' reports are at considerable variance with police reports. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of cutting in the evaluation and retention of film.

Two experiments with 96 undergraduates investigated the effects of cinematic cutting on viewers' evaluation and retention of the film and whether the cuts could be recalled. In Exp I, Ss viewed films of 8 common events, evaluated these films, and recalled the depicted activities. Exp I indicated that (1) films with cutting were preferred over uncut films and were judged to be more interesting, more active, stronger, and quicker than films without cutting; (2) cutting influenced simpler films more strongly than complex films but did not influence Ss' organization and recall of the depicted activities; and (3) the number of cuts was not accurately retained. Exp II, in which Ss were instructed to attend to the structural characteristics of each film, showed that Ss accurately recalled the number of cuts but remembered fewer activities. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An evaluation of microcounseling as an interviewer training tool.

Assigned 24 male 2nd-yr medical students to 1 of 2 interviewing training groups. The 12 microcounseling Ss received training in the use of attending behavior, open-ended questions, minimal activity responses, paraphrases, reflections of feeling, and summarization through the use of the microcounseling paradigm. The 12 comparison Ss received equivalent interview training. Pretraining and posttraining interviews with real patients were videotaped for each S. Data analysis reveals that both groups of Ss became better interviewers, but those receiving microcounseling training improved more than the comparison Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The social self in bulimia nervosa: Public self-consciousness, social anxiety, and perceived fraudulence.

Bulimic women appear preoccupied not only with their physical presentation but also with their "social self," how others perceive them in general. This study examined the relationship of the social self to body esteem and to bulimia nervosa. In Phase 1, in which 222 nonclinical women (aged 16–50 yrs) participated, the social-self measures of Perceived Fraudulence, Social Anxiety, and Public Self-Consciousness were negatively associated with body esteem. In Phase 2, 34 bulimic women were compared with 33 Ss scoring high on the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT) and 67 matched controls. Bulimic Ss, high-EAT Ss, and control Ss all differed on Perceived Fraudulence, and bulimic Ss and high-EAT Ss scored higher than control Ss on Public Self-Consciousness and Social Anxiety. The findings strongly support the hypothesized link of social self concerns to body dissatisfaction and bulimia nervosa. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Awareness of social comparison interest and motivations: A developmental study.

Two studies conceptualized interest in social comparison as motivated by situational factors. 200 Ss from 1st, 4th, and 12th grades and college evaluated the social comparison interest of a same-sex, same-age story character working on a task near a coacting peer. Factors relevant to a classroom environment (presence or absence of an objective criterion of ability evaluation and level of competition) were varied in a within-Ss (Study 1) and a between-Ss (Study 2) design. In Study 1, Ss differentially rated the level of social comparison interest among several of the conditions, while in Study 2, the expected effects of the situational variables did not emerge. Additional findings indicate developmental changes in judged motivations toward social comparison behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Agreement on initial impressions: Differences due to perceivers, trait dimensions, and target behaviors.

Assesses agreement as a function of the trait being judged, the information presented, and individual differences to spontaneously use particular trait dimensions. In Experiment 1, there was a reliable amount of agreement in rating the targets, but this was greater if the traits were related to extraversion (Factor 1 traits) than to intelligence, honesty, or conscientiousness (Factor 2 traits). In Experiment 2, Ss viewed videotapes of interviews in which the questions focused on information relevant to either Factor l or Factor 2 traits. Again there was greater agreement in ratings of Factor 1 than Factor 2 traits, but this difference was reliably reduced if Ss saw the tape that focused on Factor 2 information. Regardless of the tape viewed, Ss who frequently used Factor 2 traits gave ratings on these that were in greater agreement with those of judges as a whole. Ss judged Factor 2 traits as more difficult to clearly confirm. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)