Environmental costs of freshwater eutrophication in England and Wales

Eutrophication has many known consequences, but there are few data on the environmental and health costs. We developed a new framework of cost categories that assess both social and ecological damage costs and policy response costs. These findings indicate the severe effects of nutrient enrichment and eutrophication on many sectors of the economy. We estimate the damage costs of freshwater eutrophication in England and Wales to be $105-160 million yr(-1) (pound 75.0-114.3 m). The policy response costs are a measure of how much is being spent to address this damage, and these amount to $77 million yr(-1) pound 54.8 m). The damage costs are dominated by seven items each with costs of $15 million yr(-1) or more: reduced value of waterfront dwellings, drinking water treatment costs for nitrogen removal, reduced recreational and amenity value of water bodies, drinking water treatment costs for removal of algal toxins and decomposition products, reduced value of nonpolluted atmosphere, negative ecological effects on biota, and net economic losses from the tourist industry. In common with other environmental problems, it would represent net value (or cost reduction) if damage was prevented at source. A variety of effective economic, regulatory, and administrative policy instruments are available for internalizing these costs.     

Fertiliser practice in England and Wales: A new series of surveys

Aims and methods for a series of surveys, begun in 1969, in England and Wales, are described. The surveys are designed to monitor changes in practice on individual crops for the whole country and to provide estimates, based on data collected aver 3–4 years, of practice within regions of defined farming type. Survey estimates of fertiliser consumption in 1969 agree well with subsidy claims. Since 1966, the amount of N used per acre on tillage crops has increased at an average rate similar to that for the previous decade (nearly 3 units/acre/year), but on grassland, the recent increase has been greater. Use of P and K has also increased on tillage crops since 1966 but has hardly changed on grassland. The average manuring of most crops in 1969 was within the range of current general recommendations, but most sugar-beet had too much N, P and K per acre. Spring cereals might profit from more N, but the average use of P on winter wheat and of K on potatoes, especially early varieties, seems more than adequate. More N was used on all types of grassland in 1969 than in 1966; increases were greatest on the 15% of acreage which was strip-grazed or cut for silage. Most grassland in England and Wales is not intensively managed and the proportion that is has increased little since 1966. For spring barley, leys and permanent grass, comparative estimates are given of average practice in arable, mixed farming, dairying and livestock farming regions.     

The transport of milk from farm ot dairy in England and Wales

The history of bulk development is described showing the resulting marketing efficiency and the problems arising from bulk collection are examined. Progress in bulk development since the mid-fifties is described with the financial and technical aspects involved. Economics and the advantages of bulk collection with improved hygienic quality in ex-farm haulage are discussed and the future of the meter measurement scheme assessed.     

Central testing in England and Wales and its impact on milk quality

With the introduction of central testing in England and Wales, more frequent testing for chemical composition and antibiotics content has been possible, and total bacterial counts have taken the place of resazurin tests. The associated bonus and penalty payments have led to a steady reduction in the incidence of antibiotics in milk, a sharp drop in the mean somatic cell count and a vast improvement in hygienic quality.     

History Teaching, Cultural Restorationism and National Identity in England and Wales

The connection between history teaching and the formation of national identity is an important issue in a rapidly changing Europe. Recent interventions by senior government advisers on education in the United Kingdom on this subject emphasise its importance. By examining discourses of cultural restorationism in England and Wales, this paper considers their implications for the construction of 'English' and 'Welsh' identities in the future. It suggests that attempts to define certain forms of collective identity through education policy are not without considerable tensions and difficulties within the context of rapid cultural change and the impact of globalisation.     

Management factors associated with impaired locomotion in dairy cows in England and Wales

Forty-nine farms in England and Wales were visited on 4 occasions between February 2003 and March 2004. A total of 21,693 scores of locomotion were assigned to 7,722 cattle. Locomotion was assessed on a 3-point scale by observing the posture of a cow's back while standing and walking (1 = sound, 2 = not sound, 3 = lame). Data on measurable factors potentially associated with locomotion were collected from all farms using direct observations of the farm environment and a comprehensive farmer interview. The mean herd locomotion score was 1.77 ± 0.02. There was no significant difference in mean herd locomotion scores between 5 herds housed in straw yards (1.72 ± 0.02) and 44 herds housed in free stalls (1.78 ± 0.02), possibly because of lack of power. A GLM was produced using data from the 44 herds housed in free stalls, with the mean farm locomotion score of all cows examined on all 4 visits as the outcome variable. Factors associated with an elevated locomotion score were dry cows kept in straw yards compared with free stalls (increase in locomotion score = 0.06 ± 0.03), pregnant heifers kept with milking cows in winter compared with being kept with dry cows (increase in locomotion score = 0.09 ± 0.03), aisle widths of <3 m compared with widths of ≥3 m (increase in locomotion score = 0.06 ± 0.02), a curb height of ≤15 cm compared with a height of >15 cm (increase in locomotion score = 0.07 ± 0.03), routine trimming of hooves of all cows by a hoof trimmer or by the farmer compared with no routine hoof trimming (increase in locomotion score = 0.18 ± 0.04 and 0.13 ± 0.03 respectively), feeding corn silage to milking cows compared with feeding other forage types (increase in locomotion score = 0.10 ± 0.03), and the use of automatic scrapers in the free-stall barn compared with tractor scrapers (increase in locomotion score = 0.10 ± 0.03). These variables were correlated with many other management variables. The use of automatic scrapers was correlated with the use of sawdust on rubber mats in free stalls. Curb height was negatively correlated with increasing distance of the neck rail from the front (head end) of the free stall. These putative risk factors support the hypothesis that locomotion score is linked to management factors; in particular, the combination of sawdust on rubber mats with automatic scrapers was associated with elevated locomotion scores.     

Changeover from dipstick measurement to metered collection of ex-farm milk in England and Wales

The introduction of systems for the collection of milk from farms in England and Wales using tanker-mounted turbine milk meters, and the arrangements for driver training and the servicing and calibration of meters, are described.     

Assessment of lameness prevalence and associated risk factors in dairy herds in England and Wales

Visits were made to 205 dairy farms in England and Wales between October 2006 and May 2007 by 1 or more of 4 researchers. At each visit, all milking cows were locomotion scored (lameness scored) using a 4-point scale (0 = sound locomotion, 1 = imperfect locomotion, 2 = lame, 3 = severely lame). The mean prevalence of lameness (scores 2 and 3) across the study farms was 36.8% (range = 0-79.2%). On each farm, the presence within the housing and grazing environments of commonly reported risks for increased lameness was recorded. Each farmer was interviewed to gauge the ability of the farm staff to detect and treat lameness. A multivariable linear regression model was fitted. Risk factors for increased lameness were the presence of damaged concrete in yards, cows pushing each other or turning sharply near the parlor entrance or exit, cattle grazing pasture also grazed by sheep, the use of automatic scrapers, not treating lame cows within 48 h of detection, and cows being housed for 61 d or longer at the time they were locomotion scored by the visiting researcher. Having a herd consisting entirely of a breed or breeds other than Holstein-Friesian was associated with a reduction in lameness prevalence compared with having a herd consisting entirely of Holstein-Friesians.     

Some attributes of twin-bearing British Friesian and Canadian Holstein cows recorded in England and Wales

The production of milk, fat and protein of 37216 mothers of twins was compared with that of 1 691 127 mothers of single calves of Black and White breeds of cattle recorded in England and Wales. At every parity, the mothers of twins produced more milk, fat and protein than the mothers of single calves. The proportion of twin-bearing cows retained increased with parity, from 0.67% at first calving to approximately 40% at the tenth or eleventh calving. More mothers of twins achieved 305 d of lactation subsequently than mothers of single calves, although their inter-calving intervals were not generally longer.     

利乐海耶的中国旅程

传说中,第一个吃冰淇淋的是亚历山大大帝,他派遣奴隶去山中取回包装良好的冰和雪,然后加入蜂蜜、果汁和牛奶,“冰淇淋”的雏形就此诞生。随后,冰淇淋被马可·波罗从意大利带到了中国,在中国经过一系列演化后又随他回到了意大利。此后,冰淇淋开始风靡全世界。发展到今天,冰淇淋产品以其美味和华丽的形象走进了不同年龄段的消费群体,出现了各种包装和各种口味的产品,并且造就了许多世界知名品牌。然而令人惊异的是,尽管冰淇淋行业里名声翘楚者不少,在冰淇淋设备供应商的行列里,知名品牌却寥寥无几。利乐海耶有限公司,就是其中的佼佼者。     

导游员营养需求与合理膳食

导游员的工作具有一定的特殊性,其饮食生活不规律。本文分析了导游员的工作特点,对导游人员的营养需求进行了分析,探讨了导游员应具有的合理膳食结构。     

Laboratory measurements of dry deposition of sulphur dioxide on to several soils from England and Wales

A laboratory method for measuring the dry deposition of sulphur dioxide (SO₂) on to soils is described. The effect of soil type on deposition velocity (v_g) was examined using samples of soils collected from 16 sites in England and Wales. Although the values of v_g measured for soils at field capacity did not differ significantly they were related to soil pH; thus they ranged from 0.422 cm s^?1 at pH 4.5 to 0.648 cm s^?1 at pH 7.5. Oven drying reduced v_g from an average value of 0.535 cm s^?1 for soils at field capacity to 0.264 cm s^?1. A large proportion of deposited SO₂ was recovered from the soil as sulphate S. At an atmospheric concentration of 36 μg SO₂ m^?3, about the mean for Great Britain, the input of sulphur through this process would be 10 kg ha^?1 in a 4-month fallow period.     

Operational practices associated with foodborne disease outbreaks in the catering industry in England and Wales

Catering businesses continue to be the most common setting for foodborne disease outbreaks. In a study of catering businesses in England and Wales, operational practices relating to the supply, preparation, and service of food in 88 businesses associated with outbreaks were compared with those practices at 88 control businesses. Operational practices did not differ significantly between case and control businesses but larger small medium-size enterprise (SME) businesses were more likely to be associated with foodborne disease outbreaks than were micro-SME businesses. Businesses associated with outbreaks of Salmonella infection were less likely to use local or national suppliers but instead used regional suppliers, especially for eggs. This practice was the only significantly independent operational practice associated with outbreaks of Salmonella infection. Regional egg suppliers also were more likely to be used by businesses associated with outbreaks attributed to food vehicles containing eggs. Businesses associated with egg-associated outbreaks were less likely to use eggs produced under an approved quality assurance scheme, suggesting that the underlying risk associated with using regional suppliers may relate to the use of contaminated eggs.     

The incidence of Salmonella and Listeria in raw milk from farm bulk tanks in England and Wales

Raw milks from farm bulk tanks in England and Wales were sampled over a 15 month period in 1992–93 and analysed for Salmonella spp, Listeria spp and Listeria monocytogenes. Of 1673 samples tested for Salmonella spp, six (0.36%) yielded a positive result. A total of 2009 samples were analysed for Listeria spp. Of these, 310 (15.43%) were found positive for Listeria spp, 102 (5.08%) of the positive samples yielded L monocytogenes, which represented 33% of the Listeria isolations. There was a significant rise in the isolation rate for listerias between October and March broadly in line with the period during which the cows were housed indoors. The highest isolation rate was in January, 25.89% in 1992 and 28.4% in 1993, and the lowest isolation rate (3.1%) in August. Although the incidence of L monocytogenes broadly paralleled the trend for total Listeria, the highest percentage of L monocytogenes to total Listeria was found in the months of April to September when the total Listeria isolations were at a minimum. Thirty two (1.59%) samples were found to be positive for Listeria spp prior to enrichment procedure, with 17 (0.85%) positive for L monocytogenes. The highest counts reported for L monocytogenes were 62 and 30 colony forming units (cfu)/ml with over 60% at a level of less than 10 cfu/ml. Of the direct isolations, some 78% were obtained between the months of March and July.     

The occurrence of Listeria species in milk and dairy products: a national survey in England and Wales

A total of 4172 samples of milk, cheese and other dairy products were examined over a 1-year period for the presence of Listeria species. Strains of Listeria were found most frequently in soft, ripened cows milk cheese; 63 out of 769 (8.2%) samples contained Listeria monocytogenes, 25 samples contained species other than L. monocytogenes, and 18 samples contained both L. monocytogenes and other Listeria spp. Eleven samples of pasteurized cows milk (1.1%) from four dairies contained L. monocytogenes, and other Listeria spp. were isolated from a further five samples. Goats and ewes milk and their products, yogurt, cream and ice cream also occasionally contained Listeria spp. Levels of Listeria were usually low, but 20 samples of cheese contained more than 1000 cfu/g. Most strains of L. monocytogenes belonged to serotype 1/2 (58%) or serotype 4b (33%).     

回归纯然 放飞天性

《恋恋旅程》的初衷是为了纪念旅途中，那些与眼镜有关的珍贵影像，选材主要来源于广大读者。上期栏目里，我们邀请到一批艺术达人展现了不少风格多样的与镜有关的场景，在本期栏目里，我们将回归到旅行的主题，邀你共享主人翁们各自精彩的旅游心情。     

Primary school teachers' careers in England and Wales: the relationship between gender, role, position and promotion aspirations

This study explores gender differences in United Kingdom primary teachers' perceptions of their careers, through a national questionnaire survey and follow-up interviews. It is framed by reference to Weiner's three main components of feminism (the political, the critical and the practical), and a concern to highlight difference and complexity, as well as patterns and trends, within primary school teaching. Female and male respondents indicated different areas of concern and influence on their careers. It was found that, while reported reasons for not seeking or achieving promotion were multifaceted, the known and experienced disproportionate promotion of men, plus the frequently traditional gender differences in work - home orientation and contextual/situational expectations, contrived to limit career development for a significant number of women