Using a grounded theory approach for exploring software product management challenges

The traditional requirements engineering (RE) research paradigm, along with most engineering research and practice, is commonly seen to belong to the philosophical tradition of positivism, which construes knowledge as accruing through the systematic observation of stable and knowable phenomena. Consequently, RE methods tend to ignore social issues. However, due to the dominant role of the human being in RE, there has been an increasing need to rely on research methods of the social sciences, arts, and humanities for RE related findings. This paper illustrates one example of how social aspects in RE have been explored with a research method adopted from social sciences research tradition. Drawing heavily on the research reported in the doctoral thesis of the principal author, we describe in this paper: (1) how a study using a grounded theory approach was designed and conducted for exploring market-driven requirements engineering (MDRE) challenges in seven companies, (2) how the analysis eventually proceeded toward a proposed theory, and (3) our experiences of using a grounded theory approach within the discipline of RE.     

Using grounded theory to study the experience of software development

Grounded Theory is a research method that generates theory from data and is useful for understanding how people resolve problems that are of concern to them. Although the method looks deceptively simple in concept, implementing Grounded Theory research can often be confusing in practice. Furthermore, despite many papers in the social science disciplines and nursing describing the use of Grounded Theory, there are very few examples and relevant guides for the software engineering researcher. This paper describes our experience using classical (i.e., Glaserian) Grounded Theory in a software engineering context and attempts to interpret the canons of classical Grounded Theory in a manner that is relevant to software engineers. We provide model to help the software engineering researchers interpret the often fuzzy definitions found in Grounded Theory texts and share our experience and lessons learned during our research. We summarize these lessons learned in a set of fifteen guidelines.     

Using grounded theory as a method for rigorously reviewing literature

This paper offers guidance to conducting a rigorous literature review. We present this in the form of a five-stage process in which we use Grounded Theory as a method. We first probe the guidelines explicated by Webster and Watson, and then we show the added value of Grounded Theory for rigorously analyzing a carefully chosen set of studies; it assures solidly legitimized, in-depth analyses of empirical facts and related insights. This includes, the emergence of new themes, issues and opportunities; interrelationships and dependencies in or beyond a particular area; as well as inconsistencies. If carried out meticulously, reviewing a well-carved out piece of literature by following this guide is likely to lead to more integrated and fruitful theory emergence, something that would enrich many fields in the social sciences.     

Using quantitative data in mixed-design grounded theory studies: an enhanced path to formal grounded theory in information systems

This article discusses a key development in the use of grounded theory (GT) in information systems (IS) – the use of quantitative data in mixed studies to build on and elaborate theories. We examine the design of one of our research projects and describe how this mixed-design GT project helped elaborate emerging theories using slices of qualitative and quantitative data. Our contributions are threefold: (i) we show that the use of mixed data and techniques can be leveraged to help build credible theories in IS because it allows researchers to build theories of greater abstraction and scope: it helps sense-making in the drive from substantive to parsimonious formal theories; (ii) in line with classic GT, we propose a mixed typological design to help build a pathway to formal grounded theories in rupture with existing literature; and (iii) we highlight GT as a meta-theory of research design and revisit some of its main principles in a mixed-design perspective.     

Adaptive leadership in trauma resuscitation teams: a grounded theory approach to video analysis

The detailed analysis of team interactions can be a source of insight into team processes and how teams interact with technology. Video recordings afford an exciting medium for such analysis. We describe a study of team leadership in the highly dynamic, high-stakes environment of trauma resuscitation. The study was conducted through video recording team activities in actual work settings and analysing the video data using a grounded theory approach. The primary research questions were: what are the functions of team leadership and how do they vary according to task situations? A corpus of 152 video segments from 18 trauma patient resuscitation cases was compiled to address these research questions. A catalog of team leadership functions was developed, along with a categorisation of the task situations in which team leadership occurred. The implications of this catalog and the mapping between leadership and task situations are discussed in relation to the findings from an interview study and a survey study on team leadership. The methodological advantages of a grounded theory approach for in-context video analysis for studying work are also discussed.     

A grounded theory approach to modelling learnability of hypermedia authoring tools

One potential barrier to the development of educational hypermedia is the design of current hypermedia authoring tools (HATs) that unfortunately require higher knowledge and skills levels than possessed by most academics. Whilst the usability of hypermedia has been extensively researched, the usability of the tools required to build hypermedia has not. Learnability of HATs, an associated factor of usability, has been similarly neglected. Analysing contemporary approaches to the study of human computer interaction, this paper concludes that they do not support the kind of ‘theory building’ required to study and describe the learnability of HATs. Grounded theory (GT) is posited as an alternative approach, which if applied correctly can provide explanatory theory to inform HAT design. The paper describes the application of GT to two studies of the ease-of-learning of HATs. The first study uses quantitative and qualitative data to explore the experiences of 16 subjects learning to use HATs. In the second study, key HATs are demonstrated to a focus group of IT trainers to analyse their observations of users learning HATs. From these studies a causal model of learnability of HATs that is more detailed and complete than that offered by other contemporary theories of learnability was developed. The paper concludes that applying a GT approach can enhance HCI research through the development of explanatory, extensible and evolutionary theory to inform HAT design.     

Using grounded theory to understand software process improvement: A study of Irish software product companies

Software process improvement (SPI) aims to understand the software process as it is used within an organisation and thus drive the implementation of changes to that process to achieve specific goals such as increasing development speed, achieving higher product quality or reducing costs. Accordingly, SPI researchers must be equipped with the methodologies and tools to enable them to look within organisations and understand the state of practice with respect to software process and process improvement initiatives, in addition to investigating the relevant literature. Having examined a number of potentially suitable research methodologies, we have chosen Grounded Theory as a suitable approach to determine what was happening in actual practice in relation to software process and SPI, using the indigenous Irish software product industry as a test-bed. The outcome of this study is a theory, grounded in the field data, that explains when and why SPI is undertaken by the software industry. The objective of this paper is to describe both the selection and usage of grounded theory in this study and evaluate its effectiveness as a research methodology for software process researchers. Accordingly, this paper will focus on the selection and usage of grounded theory, rather than results of the SPI study itself.     

Extended grounded theory: a methodology to combine multiple disciplines

Information Systems and e-Business Management - Grounded theory (GT), a widespread qualitative research methodology, has been introduced to generate a theory from data that is gathered from one...     

Applying grounded theory to understand software process improvement implementation: a study of Brazilian software organizations

Despite the fact that organizations recognize the importance of implementing software process improvement (SPI) to enhance software development capabilities, recent studies show that many organizations still struggle to successfully implement SPI. These studies demonstrate that most SPI initiatives fail due to their incapacity to overcome social–cultural critical barriers, such as lack of motivation and higher management support. Therefore, the accurate understanding of the context where SPI occurs may facilitate the development of more efficient SPI implementation strategies aiming to overcome those difficulties. The objective of this work was to present a Grounded Theory-based study that investigated SPI implementation initiatives conducted by Brazilian software organizations. The main product of this study is a theoretical framework that tries and explains the phenomenon associated to the success of SPI implementation initiatives. The theoretical framework constituted a set of interrelated SPI domain entities supported by a set of propositions assessed by experienced Brazilian SPI consultants. We expect that such theoretical framework can facilitate SPI implementation by providing better understating of the dependency relationships among critical success factors that may jeopardize SPI initiatives.     

Using multimodal learning analytics to study collaboration on discussion groups

Universal Access in the Information Society - Nowadays, companies and organizations require highly competitive professionals that have the necessary skills to confront new challenges. However,...     

Using big data techniques for measuring productive friction in mass collaboration online environments

The advent of the social web brought with it challenges and opportunities for research on learning and knowledge construction. Using the online-encyclopedia Wikipedia as an example, we discuss several methods that can be applied to analyze the dynamic nature of knowledge-related processes in mass collaboration environments. These methods can help in the analysis of the interactions between the two levels that are relevant in computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) research: The individual level of learners and the collective level of the group or community. In line with constructivist theories of learning, we argue that the development of knowledge on both levels is triggered by productive friction, that is, the prolific resolution of socio-cognitive conflicts. By describing three prototypical methods that have been used in previous Wikipedia research, we review how these techniques can be used to examine the dynamics on both levels and analyze how these dynamics can be predicted by the amount of productive friction. We illustrate how these studies make use of text classifiers, social network analysis, and cluster analysis in order to operationalize the theoretical concepts. We conclude by discussing implications for the analysis of dynamic knowledge processes from a learning sciences perspective.     

Electronic data interchange: a multi-industry investigation using grounded theory

Interorganizational systems (IOS) based on electronic data interchange (EDI) are being increasingly used. However, trading partners in EDI-based IOS vary in terms of their extent of EDI use. This paper presents a grounded-theory based study of EDI use in four organizations in different industries. The methodology allows the study of EDI use from perspectives of causal conditions, types of EDI use, strategies for encouraging EDI use, consequences of EDI use, and contextual factors. Such a qualitative study facilitates an understanding of how and why different factors impact EDI use. Under-researched issues, such as internal use of EDI, impact of EDI on different types of employees, and use of EDI for collective benefit of multiple organizations are discussed.     

Glove-based approach to online signature verification

Utilizing the multiple degrees of freedom offered by the data glove for each finger and the hand, a novel on-line signature verification system using the Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) numerical tool for signature classification and verification is presented. The proposed technique is based on the Singular Value Decomposition in finding r singular vectors sensing the maximal energy of glove data matrix A, called principal subspace, so the effective dimensionality of A can be reduced. Having modeled the data glove signature through its r-principal subspace, signature authentication is performed by finding the angles between the different subspaces. A demonstration of the data glove is presented as an effective high-bandwidth data entry device for signature verification. This SVD-based signature verification technique is tested and its performance is shown to be able to recognize forgery signatures with a false acceptance rate of less than 1.2%.     

The enabling role of Web services in information system development practices: a grounded theory study

This study presents a grounded theory analysis of a case study in the banking industry with a view to showing the enabling role of “Web services” technology in information system development practices. The grounded theory analysis of the Cashier Management System development project at the Central Europe Bank (a pseudonym) shows that Web services technology is a key technological enabler for more agile forms of IS development, characterized by incremental analysis, requirements revision, requirements emerging in use and incremental implementation. In particular, an initial in-depth analysis phase, conducted in a traditional way, is then followed, during system development, by several iterative phases of requirements revision/addition, in fulfilment of emerging or previously unplanned user needs discovered along the way. Such system development practices, enabled by the Web services technology and influenced by a variety of contextual factors, cover a middle ground between methodical and amethodical development processes.     

Using online collaboration applications for group assignments: The interplay between design and human characteristics

In recent years, educators and students are increasingly employing online collaboration applications such as Google Docs™ and PBWorks™ for group projects and assignments. Yet, the effectiveness of these emerging technologies has not been rigorously examined. Anchoring upon and informed by the existing literature, two design characteristics – sociability and visibility, and two human characteristics – gender and age, are focused on, which are salient in online collaboration applications. A field experiment was conducted to examine the direct and moderating effects of design and human characteristics on learning outcomes. The research found that sociability improved process satisfaction and positive social environment while visibility enhanced academic performance and solution satisfaction of learners. Males had higher solution satisfaction while older learners had higher academic performance. Moderating effects were also found. Both theoretical and practical implications are drawn. In particular, a rubric for online collaboration application selection for academic performance is conceived. This study provides empirical support for online collaboration application effectiveness in education which will augur well for future adoption, use and evolution.     

How anonymous are you online? Examining online social behaviors from a cross-cultural perspective

Communication on the Internet is often described as “anonymous”, yet the usage of the term is often confusing, even in academia. Three levels of anonymity, visual anonymity, dissociation of real and online identities, and lack of identifiability, are thought to have different effects on various components of interpersonal motivation. Specifically, we propose that cross-cultural differences in interpersonal motivation (autonomy vs. affiliation) are illustrated by choices individuals make when deciding whether or not to remain anonymous while communicating online. Autonomy is often valued in Western societies, whereas Eastern societies tend to emphasize affiliation, suggesting that individuals in Western societies will gravitate toward online communities that allow lower levels of anonymity, while individuals in Eastern societies will be more likely to seek out online communities that promote higher levels of anonymity. The research presented in this article supports this notion, suggesting that we need to consider cultural differences when designing online communication systems and other communications technologies.     

Model approach to grammatical evolution: theory and case study

Many deficiencies with grammatical evolution (GE) such as inconvenience in solution derivations, modularity analysis, and semantic computing can partly be explained from the angle of genotypic representations. In this paper, we deepen some of our previous work in visualizing concept relationships, individual structures and total evolutionary process, contributing new ideas, perspectives, and methods in these aspects; reveal the principle hidden in early work so that to develop a practical methodology; provide formal proofs for issues of concern which will be helpful for understanding of mathematical essence of issues, establishing of an unified formal framework as well as practical implementation; exploit genotypic modularity like modular discovery systematically which for the lack of supporting mechanism, if not impossible, is done poorly in many existing systems, and finally demonstrate the possible gains through semantic analysis and modular reuse. As shown in this work, the search space and the number of nodes in the parser tree are reduced using concepts from building blocks, and concepts such as the codon-to-grammar mapping and the integer modulo arithmetic used in most existing GE can be abnegated.     

A social-cognitive approach to online game cheating

Drawing upon social cognitive theory, the present study constructed a conceptual model to provide an in-depth understanding of the key psychosocial factors shaping the cheating behavior in online multiplayer games. An online survey approach and structural equation modeling were adopted to investigate the hypothesized relationships and to assess the fitness of the model. The findings of this study provided support for the research model and the social cognitive theory perspective on game cheating behavior. The cheating behavior was found to be influenced by both external and self-generated factors. Specifically, individual gamers’ social environment (peer influence), their own attitude towards game cheating, and evaluation of cheating outcomes played an important role in shaping this problematic behavior in online games. Game cheating self-efficacy was interestingly found to be an insignificant factor for the game cheating behavior. The study fills a gap in the current literature on games and cheating, specifically on the social cognitive mechanisms of the cheating behavior in online multiplayer games.