Erratum.

Reports and error in the original article by Constance T. Fischer's (American Psychologist, Jan [1973], Vol no. 28 [1], 90-91) "Psychology as a Human Science contra Humane Behaviorism", should read: "While its [humanistic psychology's] argument with behaviorism thus is not an opposition to being scientific, it is a stance against being scientific with humans (cf. Giorgi, 1970)." The printed version renders "scientistic" as "scientific," thus obfuscating a critical point. Scientism is the position that to be scientific a discipline must model itself after the physical sciences. The point was that, in contrast, psychology as a human science seeks to develop methods that are appropriate to man recognized as more than physical object. (The following abstract of this article originally appeard in record 1990-57039-001.) Challenges D. L. Avila's (1972) assertion that humanism refers only to the development and use of knowledge toward humane ends in his proposal to "kill" humanism and unite humaneness and behaviorism. Humanistic psychologists are described as being not merely humanitarians but as being committed toward dealing with humanness in its own right. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Value of results of animal experiments for the evaluation of drugs. 3. Animal trials and subjective probability

Inasmuch as the findings in pharmacology and toxicology are based on animal trials these disciplines have to be considered as subjective sciences, since the experimentally obtained objective data become medically relevant only on the basis of subjective probabilities. The value of pharmacological and toxicological tests is dependent on the quality of the investigator. Data obtained in animals trials are of no relevance for human medicine unless the investigator substantiates his subjective probabilities and at the same time demonstrates how the hypotheses won in animal trials can be verified in man. Toxicological testing methods allowing the "preselection" of drugs or any other kind of deductions without verification in man do not exist. Animal studies which are not based on the principles of decision theory serve merely as an alibi and may lead to wrong conclusions. Besides, they interfere with the German Animal Protection Law. Methodological problems can neither be solved by normative regulations of an administrative authority nor by increasing experimental activity.     

The trigamist syndrome

A BIGAMIST is a man who is "legally" married to two women. A "TRIGAMIST" (according to my definition) is a PERSON who is "married" (in the sense of being deeply attached) three times over to such an extent that there is little or no room left for a "permanent" commitment. The three "marriages" are to: a) a parent b) an occupation c) an ideal figure which exists only in the mind of the beholder. Parts of this syndrome have been described separately in scientific and literary form innumerable times but the syndrome as a WHOLE has never been recognised or described in spite of the fact that it is responsible for influencing millions of human relationships and destroying the life of countless people.     

The Scientific Denial of the Real and the Dialectic of Scientism and Humanism.

Comment on "Realism, Instrumentalism, and Scientific Symbiosis: Psychological Theory as a Search for Truth and the Discovery of Solutions" by John T. Cacioppo, Gun R. Semin and Gary G. Berntson (see record 2004-14303-001). The appeal for the unification of psychology is in fashion and Cacioppo et al.'s term "symbiosis" connotes a cooperative and communal practice that is difficult to criticize without being regarded as quarrelsome and cantankerous. As Cacioppo et al. stated, the ultimate goal for a unification in psychology should be "to approach or approximate scientific realism" (p. 221). Thus, iterative practice or not, there is no symbiosis, only a reductionistic approach with a gesture toward including positive qualities of instrumentalism. Cacioppo et al. essentially proposed a check-and-balance system for scientific realism which is the ultimate victor. Ramey and Chrysikou go on to discuss the differences between scientific realism and instrumentalism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A radical rupture in the paradigm of modern medicine: conflicts of interest, fiduciary obligations, and the scientific ideal

Conflicts of interest serve as a cipher for a radical rupture in the Flexnerian paradigm of medicine, and they can only be addressed if we recognize that health care is now practiced by institutions, not just individual physicians. By showing how "appropriate utilization of services" or "that which is medically indicated" is a function of socioeconomic factors related to institutional responsibilities, I point toward an administrative and organizational ethic as a needed component for addressing conflicts of interest. The argument is developed by reviewing three important books. First, I consider Mark Rodwin's attempt to configure the economic structures of medicine so that classical fiduciary and scientific ideals can be fostered. Second, I consider E. Haavi Morreim's attempt to modify the classical ideals in order to account for new economic realities. Finally, by considering essays in a recent volume on conflicts of interest edited by Spece, Shimm, and Buchanan, I argue for a constructive dialectic between the approaches of Rodwin and Morreim. In order to properly address conflicts of interest, there must be a radical reassessment of medicine that accounts for the interrelation between scientific, ethical, and economic concerns. Until institutions come into view and professional ethics is developed to account for their role, legitimate interests and obligations of diverse parties cannot be harmonized.     

More about "Doctors".

One may well add to the excellent letter of Sidney J. Fields in the last issue a few further considerations, in large part anthropological, that help to provide perspective. As a glance at the encyclopedic Oxford Dictionary will show, the title doctor historically originated in medieval Europe with the theologian--the doctor of divinity. The doctor of philosophy is, of course, an offshoot of the same stalk and in the days of medieval learning, before the heyday of modern science, even the doctor of medicine was expected to write a learned thesis. In some European universities this practice still prevails. The generic doctor is, after all, the man of learning who teaches (doceo in Latin is teach), and not only are there many kinds of professional doctors, but there are many varieties of scientific ones--in physiology, chemistry, linguistics, psychology, etc. Goethe's Dr. Faust preferred to be known not as a doctor of theology but as a doctor of medicine. Is it generally known that in England the surgeon (F.R.C.S.) is regularly called Mister? The general practitioner ordinarily does not have an MD degree and is addressed as Doctor by courtesy only. Not to be overlooked is the studied manner in which the American academic "Doctor," reacting perhaps against the Central European proliferation of titles (Herr Prof. Dr. Jones), modestly calls himself "Mister." To the argument that in case of emergency the wrong "Doctor" might be enlisted for help--to his embarrassment, let alone that of the victim--there is the obvious answer that in these days of widespread first aid training, the advisable appeal is not just for a physician but for anyone versed in appropriate measures. If all professional groups would agree to do without the title Doctor and, like the citizens of the French Revolution, be satisfied with the simple Mister, all would be well; or, if it is too late--or too early--for this recommendation, the alternative is to allow the title to anyone with the appropriate academic degree. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A correlation between shoulder laxity and interfering pain in competitive swimmers

STUDY OBJECTIVE: The "impact factor" published in Science Citation Index (SCI) is widely used in the scientific community to measure the relative importance of a medical journal. In contrast to all other indicators of academic growth in emergency medicine, impact factors for emergency medicine journals have remained low and unchanged since the inception of the specialty. We wished to investigate this incongruity. METHODS: We examined the methodology used to derive the SCI's journal impact factor. RESULTS: The impact factor for journals is defined mathematically as the number of times a journal is cited over a period of time (the numerator) divided by the number of articles published by that journal during the same period (the denominator). Citation counts are derived from examination of all references contained in a subset of journals known as "source" journals. No emergency medicine journals are included in this group. The only source of citations for emergency medicine journals is from journals outside of emergency medicine. This produces small numerators with relatively constant denominators, leading to low impact factors. CONCLUSION: The apparent failure of emergency medicine journals, as measured by the SCI impact factor, to keep pace with other indicators of academic development of the field is at least in part attributable to a methodologic bias inherent in the derivation of this factor.     

Phenomenology depends on human nature.

Comments on the article "Psychology and Phenomenology: A Clarification" by H. H. Kendler (see record 2005-05480-003). Kendler contrasted objective phenomena going on in the mind with phenomenological convictions. He concluded, on the basis of a thoughtful analysis, that scientific psychology cannot validate moral principles, which have to be agreed upon by discussion among educated members of a democratic community. He recommended psychological research on the consequences of social policies that may facilitate humans' decisions. I argue that research on the nature of phenomenological convictions is useful as well, enabling human beings to amend their strategies when reasoning about moral values. Scientific psychology can contribute to moral reasoning not only by examining social consequences of certain policies but also by highlighting the very process, starting from phenomenological convictions and ending in moral values within a community. Thus, psychological research contributes to the reflection of how members of a community exert their freedom and may give them the opportunity to enhance their reasoning and negotiation procedures. Scholars have to be humble and admit that the limit to this enhancement lies in the limitations of human reasoning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Free love, wild marriage--on the gradual dissolution of marriage by love"

Within the different cultural epochs there exist different concepts of what is to be meant by 'love', 'marriage', 'human communication'. Maybe we are presently in the process of a paradigmatic change. However certain basic laws within human relations will always persist, such as: erotics, attraction, strive to social security, necessity to combine positive and negative within longer lasting human relations etc. Above all there is a great individual variability. There exist no one-way solutions. The more it is important that not only psychotherapists should be aware of the problems and include them in their daily work. But it counts for every doctor, who intends to operate humanistic medicine (not only a mechanistic one). This means a holistic approach towards a "partner"-patient.     

"An historical note on Darwin and nonhuman drug self-administration": Clarification to Higgins (2003).

Reports a clarification in "An historical note on Darwin and nonhuman drug self-administration" by Stephen T. Higgins (Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 2003[Nov], Vol 11[4], 317). It is noted that Charles R. Schuster served as the Action Editor for this article. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2003-09137-009.) This note brings to the attention of readers a quote from Charles Darwin on the scientific implications of nonhuman drug self-administration. The quote is from The descent of man; and Selection in relation to sex (2nd ed.; C. Darwin, 1874/1998). Consistent with Darwin's prescience in many areas of science, he discerned potential scientific importance in voluntary nonhuman drug self-administration almost a century before that potential was realized in any substantive or systematic manner. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Folk medicine, experience therapy, a component of modern therapeutics?

Empirical medicine has three main supporting pillars: physical treatment, dietetics and phytotherapy. In this area of medicine, a number of therapeutical methods have been evolved which stand up to investigations employing scientific criteria, and which, in consequence, have become officially recognized by medical science. Examples are: diet rich in bulkage, digitalis, products of Papaver somniferum (Poppy) and salicylates. The acceptance of phytotherapeutic agents into the drug armamentarium of scientific medicine presupposes the availability of test methods suitable to demonstrate their effectiveness. Quite a number of remedies that have always been firmly anchored in empirical medicine, but which was applied regularly only by the nature healer, have suddenly, in the light of new test methods, been shown to be effective medicines; thus, for example, onions and garlic are good for thrombotic processes and hyperglycaemia, carminatives for sphincter spasms in the gastrointestinal tract, and alcohol is an appetite-stimulating stomachic. This fact, the limited applicability of the information obtained from animal experiments, and the further fact that even test results obtained in human subjects cannot be applied on a world-wide basis, exhort us to take care not to subscribe to an all-too apodictic classification of therapeutic measures into effective and noneffective. A further point for consideration is that the administration even of what is only a supposed remedy, can trigger or promote healing simply on the strength of the action of the physician. Scientific thinking is an indispensible precondition of the physician's activity--to consider it as the beginning and end of all things medical, however, is simply to demonstrate a narrowness of outlook.     

Blood flow dynamics in different layers of the somatosensory region of the cerebral cortex on the rat during mechanical stimulation of the vibrissae

Since the creation of the Office of Alternative Medicine (OAM) at the National Institutes of Health (NIH), progress has been made in the evaluation and, where appropriate, the clinical and scientific acceptance of "complementary and alternative" medicine (CAM). This progress is due in part to initiatives jointly conducted by the NIH and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). In particular, advances in the evaluation and acceptance of two CAM practices, acupuncture and botanical medicine, have resulted from ongoing cooperation between the two agencies. The legalization of the use of acupuncture needles in 1996 came as a result of a workshop sponsored by the OAM with the participation of the FDA, which explored key regulatory issues. Prompted by similar regulatory issues, as well as by the initiation of NIH-funded research projects, the OAM sponsored an international symposium to examine the evidence for and the role of botanical medicine in the United States. This conference generated a series of workshops sponsored by the Drug Information Association in conjunction with NIH and FDA, which explored the scientific, regulatory, and policy issues of heterogeneous botanical products. These efforts resulted in the initiation of a large randomized multicenter clinical trial (sponsored by the National Institute of Mental Health) of the botanical, St. John's wort, for the treatment of depression, and the formation of internal working groups within the FDA that are drafting a guidance policy for the development of botanicals as drugs in the United States. This document is expected to be available in the near future.     

The terminology in assessing the recovery of human work capacity

The paper deals with the scientific and practical expediency of using the unified terminology in the rehabilitation of working capacity in man. The term "recreation" is proposed to define the processes and phenomena associated with recovered functions and forces of the human body, which have been lost at work.     

On Kelman's "Conversations with Arafat."

Argues that H. C. Kelman's (see record 1983-32571-001) recommendation that the US and Israel negotiate with the Palestine Liberation Organization is a misapplication of psychological principles to a political question and is based on a judgment of Yasser Arafat's "cognitive style," which conflicts with all the overt evidence. It is further argued that Kelman's hypotheses are not only without a scientific base but also serve to lend credibility to a man and an organization whose intentions have been cognitively and behaviorally clear—the end of the existence of Israel. (1 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The evaluation of instrument displays: A point of view.

"One of the most common duties to fall to an applied experimental psychologist is evaluation… . The control of a machine by a man may be conceived as a process of information exchange between man and machine… . Since it is the function of an instrument display in a man-machine system to present the human operator with signs, and since the signs may have the functions of command, designation, and computation, any evaluation of a display must be in terms of its success in presenting signs which perform these functions… . The properties of an instrument display in virtue of which its indications are effective in command and designation are the properties which must be assessed in an evaluation of the display." The point of view presented rests on 6 major principles which are stated, and the point of view is summarized in the statement that: "the only research which can in any significant measure lead to applied decisions is research of general import." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

[Review of Sexual behavior in the human female; Sex ethics and the Kinsey reports; and Twenty-five years of sex research. History of the National Research Council Committee for Research in Problems of Sex, 1922-1947].

Reviews the books Sexual behavior in the human female by A. C. Kinsey et al. (see record 1954-05526-000); Sex ethics and the Kinsey reports by S. Hiltner (1953); and Twenty-five years of sex research. History of the National Research Council Committee for Research in Problems of Sex, 1922-1947 by Sophie D. Aberle, and G. W. Corner (see record 1954-02151-000). Concerning the first book, this review merely points to the facts that have been marshalled in the enormous range of individual differences in reported capacity, or rather claimed performance, and to the extensive detailed information set forth in Part III entitled "Comparisons of Female and Male." The sex difference shown by the fact that in 30 out of 33 items the male, on the average, is more readily affected by psychological stimuli is worthy of special note. This finding provides a wealth of insight for better understanding of the psychology of human males and females. Hiltner's work will aid many clergymen to assimilate the findings with a minimum of trauma. It should enable them to do a better job of understanding and counseling their parishoners, young or old. The significance of Kinsey's work and of Hiltner's interpretation can be fully understood only by studying the magnificent achievements of the NRC Committee for Research in Problems of Sex. Aberle and Corner's report gives due credit to Robert M. Yerkes who was chairman from 1922 to 1947. Yerkes' foresight, initiative, tact, courage, and everlasting persistence were primarily responsible for this development. The Committee courageously supported research on all aspects of sex in all species from paramecium to man. Thus psychology has moved from an intellectualistic preoccupation with man as a rational being to a more realistic understanding of man as a behaving organism in all of his manifold adjustments. In short, sex can no longer be ignored. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Two models of man.

Analyzes the arguments concerning phenomenology vs. behaviorism related in a symposium which dealt with 2 models of man and the scientific methodology associated with each. The basic argument is stated: "The behaviorist views man as a passive organism governed by external stimuli . . . . The phenomenologist views man as the source of acts." It is concluded that: (1) acceptance of either model would have great implications on the everyday world; (2) each view of man is credible; (3) each model could be useful, depending upon the problem under study, for the behavioral and phenomenological scientist; and (4) each scientist should listen to the opposing viewpoint. (19 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Psychology: The unity of human behavior.

Reviews the book "Psychology: The unity of human behavior," by Timothy J. Gannon (see record 1954-06735-000). This volume is an introductory textbook of psychology for college students. In addition to a somewhat different organization of the material and a different emphasis accorded to various topics Gannon's book introduces certain theoretical considerations which are not ordinarily found in most textbooks. The book is divided into four parts: The first part, the shortest, is a general introduction. The second, entitled "Reception," deals with sensation and perception. The author, in discussing perception, particularly stresses the neural correlates of perception and the localization of functions in the brain. The third, "Response," contains the discussion of reflexes, drives, and emotions. The fourth and last part, "Integration," is the longest, constituting almost half of the book. The principal concern of the author is to present all experiences, and all behavior, as integrated manifestations of a single living person. The entire book is characterized by an effort to present to the student not merely a survey of psychological problems and known facts about man but to provide him at the same time with a concept of man's nature which would serve as a key to the understanding of man as such. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Risk assessment of carcinogens in food with special consideration of non-genotoxic carcinogens. Scientific arguments for use of risk assessment and for changing the Delaney Clause specifically

The document "Risk Assessment of Carcinogens in Food with Special Consideration of Non-Genotoxic Carcinogens" was produced by the International Federation of Societies of Toxicologic Pathologists on the occasion of its triannual meeting in Tours, France, April 23-26, 1995. Subsequently, it was endorsed by the North American Society of Toxicologic Pathologists at its annual meeting in San Diego, CA, USA, June 11-15, 1995. This document was written to address up-to-date risk assessment of carcinogens and anachronisms in the Delaney Clause of the US Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act which have become evident since its enactment in 1958. In the intervening years, major progress has been made in understanding mechanisms of cancer induction and in recognizing causes of human cancer. The Clause in conjunction with its present legal interpretation and implementation does not provide for rational, scientific evaluation of carcinogens. It ignores the fact that the diverse mechanisms now known to underlie cancer increases in rodents exposed to high doses of chemicals are often inapplicable to man. In this regard, current evaluation of chemicals based on the tenets of the Delaney Clause is irrational in many cases. The document presents several examples of chemicals to which humans may be exposed through food and which illustrate the need for science-based risk assessment. Appropriate risk assessment methods are available to provide assurance of negligible risk, and accordingly, it is recommended that the Delaney Clause be rescinded as it has outlived its usefulness. This will enable US governmental agencies to regulate the use of chemicals in foods by using appropriate current scientific methods on a case by case basis within the context of other relevant legislation.     

Ecological moral realism: An alternative theoretical framework for studying moral psychology.

The authors propose that the empirical study of human moral behavior as undertaken by positive psychologists, psychologists interested in the study of values, and experimental ethicists can be normative at its core, yet also remain truly scientific. To do this, those interested in the empirical study of human moral behavior should consider the concept of affordances, which is central to the Gibsonian ecological psychology tradition, as an approach to studying virtues and strengths. From this perspective, virtues can be better defined as part of moral analogues of affordances (MAAs). Just as the affordance "being-climbable" is a relation between climbing ability and height, so one can similarly define a MAA as an opportunity for moral behavior. Virtues, on this account, would be defined as abilities to behave appropriately in morally relevant situations. If one studies virtues as components of MAAs, virtues are only comprehensible in terms of morally relevant situations. Similarly, morally relevant situations are comprehensible only in terms of abilities to behave appropriately in them, that is, in terms of virtues. We believe that such an approach holds many advantages. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)