The determination of interface state energy distribution of the H-terminated Zn/p-type Si Schottky diodes with high series resistance by the admittance spectroscopy

Analysis of Zn/p-Si Schottky diodes (SDs) with high resistivity has been given by admittance spectroscopy. The importance of the series resistance in the determination of energy distribution of interface states and especially their relaxation time in the SDs with high resistivity has been considered. The effect of the series resistance on capacitance-conductance/frequency characteristics has been given by comparing experimental data with theoretical data. The interface state density N_ss from the admittance spectroscopy ranges from 1.0×10¹² cm⁻² eV⁻¹ in 0.720-E_v eV to 2.03×10¹² cm⁻² eV⁻¹ in 0.420-E_v eV. Furthermore, the relaxation time ranges from 4.20×10⁻⁵ s in (0.420-E_v) eV to 3.20×10⁻⁴ s in (0.720-E_v) eV. It has been seen that the interface state density has a very small distribution range (1.0-2.03×10¹² cm⁻² eV⁻¹) that is ascribed to the predominant termination with hydrogen of the silicon surface after HF treatment.     

Low temperature photoluminescence and infrared dielectric functions of pulsed laser deposited ZnO thin films on silicon

C-axis oriented ZnO thin films were grown on silicon (100) and (111) substrates by pulsed laser deposition. Low temperature photoluminescence spectra show besides the peaks of free excitons, of defect bound excitons, and of a donor-acceptor pair transition a new doublet at 3.328/3.332 eV. The doublet seems to originate from the columnar textured ZnO film structure. A corresponding structural dependence of the broadening parameter of the infrared dielectric functions was derived from spectroscopic ellipsometry in the spectral range from 380 to 1200 cm^− 1. The wave numbers of the E₁ transverse optical and A₁ longitudinal optical phonon modes of the ZnO films on silicon are determined to be 406 and 573 cm^− 1, respectively. These values are slightly smaller than those of single-crystalline ZnO thin films on sapphire.     

Formation of CuIn1 − xAlxSe2 thin films studied by Raman scattering

CuIn_1 − xAl_xSe₂ (CIAS) thin films (x = 0.06, 0.18, 0.39, 0.64, 0.80 and 1) with thicknesses of approximately 1 μm were formed by the selenization of sputtered Cu―In―Al precursors and studied via X-ray diffraction, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and micro-Raman spectroscopy at room temperature. Precursor films selenized at 300, 350, 400, 450, 500 and 550 °C were examined via Raman spectroscopy in the range 50-500 cm^− 1 with resolution of 0.3 cm^− 1. Sequential formation of In_xSe_y, Cu_2 − xSe, CuInSe₂ (CIS) and CIAS phases was observed as the selenization temperature was increased. Conversion of CIS to CIAS was initiated at 500 °C. For all CuIn_1 − xAl_xSe₂ products, the A₁ phonon frequency varied nonlinearly with respect to the aluminum composition parameter x in the range 172 cm^− 1 to 186 cm^− 1.     

Study of GeYSi1 − Y:H films deposited by low frequency plasma

In this work, we report a study of the optical properties measured through spectral transmission and spectroscopic ellipsometry in Ge:H and Ge_YSi_1 − Y:H (Y ≈ 0.97) films deposited by low frequency (LF) PE CVD with hydrogen (H) dilution. The dilution was varied in the range of R = 20 to 80. It was observed that H-dilution influences in a different way on the interface and bulk optical properties, which also depend on incorporation of silicon. The films with low band tail characterized by its Urbach energy, E_U, and defect absorption, α_D, have been obtained in Ge:H films for R = 50 with E_U = 0.040 eV and α_D = 2 × 10³ cm^− 1 (hν ≈ 1.04 eV), and in Ge_YSi_1 − Y:H films for R=75 with E_U = 0.030 eV and α_D = 5 × 10² cm^− 1 (hν ≈ 1.04 eV).     

Study of flash evaporated CuIn1 − xGaxTe2 (x = 0, 0.5 and 1) thin films

CuIn_1 − xGa_xTe₂ thin films with x = 0, 0.5 and 1, have been prepared by flash evaporation technique. These semiconducting layers present a chalcopyrite structure. The optical measurements have been carried out in the wavelength range 200-3000 nm. The linear dependence of the lattice parameters as a function of Ga content obeying Vegard's law was observed. The films have high absorption coefficients (4 · 10⁴ cm^− 1) and optical band gaps ranging from 1.06 eV for CuInTe₂ to 1.21 eV for CuGaTe₂. The fundamental transition energies of the CuIn_1 − xGa_xTe₂ thin films can be fitted by a parabolic equation namely E_g1(x) = 1.06 + 0.237x − 0.082x². The second transition energies of the CuInTe₂ and CuGaTe₂ films were estimated to be: E_g2 = 1.21 eV and E_g2 = 1.39 eV respectively. This variation of the energy gap with x has allowed the achievement of absorber layers with large gaps.     

Impurity induced band-gap narrowing in p-type CuIn1 − xGax(S,Se)2

Green's functions modelling of the impurity induced effects in p-type CuIn_1 − xGa_xS₂ and CuIn_1 − xGa_xSe₂ (x = 0.0, 0.5, and 1.0) reveals that: (i) the critical active acceptor concentration for the metal non-metal transition occurs at N_c ≈ 10¹⁷-10¹⁸ cm^− 3 for impurities with ionization energy of E_A ≈ 30-60 meV. (ii) For acceptor concentrations N_A > N_c, the hole gas of the metallic phase affects the band-edge energies and narrows the energy gap E_g = E_g⁰ − ΔE_g. The energy shift of the valence-band maximum ΔE_v1 is roughly twice as large as the shift of the conduction-band minimum ΔE_c1. (iii) ΔE_v1 depends strongly on the non-parabolicity of the valence bands. (iv) Sulfur based compounds and Ga-rich alloys have the largest shifts of their band edges. (v) A high active acceptor concentrations of N_A = 10²⁰ cm^− 3 implies a band-gap narrowing in the order of ΔE_g ≈ 0.2 eV, thus E_g = E_g⁰ − 0.2 eV, and an optical band gap of E_g^opt ≈ E_g⁰ − 0.1 eV.     

Effect of an organic compound (Methyl Red) interfacial layer on the calculation of characteristic parameters of an Al/Methyl Red/p-Si sandwich Schottky barrier diode

An Al/Methyl Red/p-Si sandwich Schottky barrier diode (SBD) has been fabricated by adding a solution of the organic compound Methyl Red in chloroform onto a p-Si substrate, and then evaporating the solvent. Current-voltage (I-V) measurements of the Al/Methyl Red/p-Si sandwich SBD have been carried out at room temperature and in the dark. The Al/Methyl Red/p-Si sandwich SBD demonstrated rectifying behavior. Barrier height (BH) and ideality factor values of 0.855 eV and 1.19, respectively, for this device have been determined from the forward-bias I-V characteristics. The Al/Methyl Red/p-Si sandwich SBD showed non-ideal I-V behavior with the value of ideality factor greater than unity. The energy distribution of the interface state density determined from I-V characteristics increases exponentially with bias from 3.68 × 10¹² cm^− 2 eV^− 1 at (0.81 − E_v) eV to 9.99 × 10¹³ cm^− 2 eV^− 1 at (0.69 − E_v) eV.     

Fabrication of p-type CuSCN/n-type micro-structured ZnO heterojunction structures

Micro-sized ZnO rods on a SnO₂ coated glass substrate were obtained by the spray pyrolysis method. Then a p-type CuSCN layer was deposited on this micro-sized n-ZnO to produce a p-n heterojunction. Temperature dependent current-voltage characteristics were measured in the temperature range 150-300 K with a step of 25 K. The current-voltage characteristics exhibit electrical rectification behavior. The zero bias barrier height Φ_b0 increases and the ideality factor n decreases with an increase in temperature. The apparent Richardson constant and mean barrier height were found to be 0.0028 A cm^− 2 K^− 2 and 0.228 eV respectively in the range 150-300 K. After a barrier height inhomogeneity correction, the Richardson constant and the mean barrier height were obtained as 65.20 A cm^− 2 K^− 2 and 0.840 eV, respectively.     

Optical properties and DC electrical conductivity of Ge28−xSe72Sbx thin films

Thin films of Ge_28−xSe₇₂Sb_x (x=0, 8, 16, 24 at%) with thickness of 200 nm are prepared by thermal evaporation onto glass substrates under vacuum of 5.3×10⁻⁵ mbar. Optical reflectance and transmittance of these films are measured at room temperature in the light wavelength region from 200 to 1100 nm. The estimated optical energy gap, E_g, is found to decrease from 2 eV (0 at% Sb) to 1.5 eV (24 at% Sb), whereas the band tail width, E_e, increases from 0.062 to 0.077 eV, respectively. The refractive index, n, and extinction coefficient, κ, are determined as functions of wavelength. The DC electrical conductivity, σ, of films is measured as a function of temperature in the range from 300 to 360 K. The extracted value of activation energy, ΔE, is found to decrease from 0.95 eV (0 at% Sb) to 0.74 eV (24 at% Sb). Optical and electrical behavior of films can be explained in terms of cohesive energy (CE) and Se-Se defect bonds.     

Electrical characteristics of an organic thin copolymer/p-Si Schottky barrier diode

We have fabricated a poly(aniline-3-methyl thiophene) organic thin material on p-Si substrate by placing a solution of copolymer in acetonitrile on top of a p-Si substrate and then evaporating the solvent. The electrical and interface state density properties of the poly(aniline-3-methyl thiophene) copolymer/p-Si/Al diode have been investigated through methods using current-voltage (I-V), Cheung's, and a modified Norde's function. Good agreement was observed with the values of barrier height as obtained from all of these methods. The diode shows a non-ideal I-V behavior with an ideality factor greater than unity, which could be ascribed to the interfacial layer, interface states and series resistance. The interface state density of diode was determined using the forward-bias I-V characteristic technique at room temperature, and it decreases exponentially with bias from 1.39 × 10¹⁶ cm⁻² eV⁻¹ in (0.06 − E_v) eV to 4.86 × 10¹⁵ cm⁻² eV⁻¹ in (0.51 − E_v) eV.     

Ohmic contacts and n-type doping on TixCr2 − xO3 films and the temperature dependence of their transport properties

A procedure to dope n-type Cr_2 − xTi_xO₃ thin films is proposed. Besides doping the material, at the same time the method forms ohmic contacts on Ti_xCr_2 − xO₃ films. It consists on the deposition of 10 nm Ti and 50 nm Au, followed by thermal annealing at 1000 °C for 20 min in N₂ atmosphere. Ohmic contacts were formed on three samples with different composition: x = 0.17, 0.41 and 1.07 in a van der Pauw geometry for Hall effect measurements. These measurements are done between 35 K and 373 K. All samples showed n-type nature, with a charge carrier density (n) on the order of 10²⁰ cm^− 3, decreasing as x increased. As a function of temperature, n shows a minimum around 150 K, while the mobilities have an almost constant value of 11, 28 and 7 cm²V^− 1 s^− 1 for x = 0.17, 0.41 and 1.07, respectively.     

Characterization of electron irradiated GaN n-p diode

Electron-beam irradiated GaN n⁺-p diodes were characterized by deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) and optical responsivity measurements. The GaN n⁺-p diode structures were grown by metal organic chemical vapor deposition technique, and the electron irradiation was done by the energies of 1 MeV and 2 MeV with dose of 1 × 10¹⁶ cm^− 2. In DLTS measurement, the defect states of E_c − 0.36 eV and E_c − 0.44 eV in the electron irradiated diodes appeared newly. The optical responsivity of GaN n⁺-p diode was characterized in ultra-violet region, and then the maximum optical responsivity at 350 nm was decreased after electron-beam irradiation.     

Lithium conducting glass ceramic with Nasicon structure

Lithium ion conducting glass and glass ceramic of the composition Li_1.4[Al_0.4Ge_1.6(PO₄)₃], have been synthesized. The monolithic glass pieces on thermal treatment resulted in single-phase glass ceramic with the Nasicon structure. Experiments with different electrodes proved that the lithium electrodes provide accurate values for the ionic conductivity using impedance spectroscopy. σ_ionic of the glass ceramic was found to be 3.8×10⁻⁵ S cm⁻¹ at 40°C with an activation energy (E_a) of 0.52 eV. The corresponding values for the glass are 2.7×10⁻⁹ S cm⁻¹ and 0.95 eV, respectively. The Arrhenius dependence of σ_ionic with temperature in glass and glass ceramic is interpreted with a hopping mechanism from which the microscopic characteristics of the lithium cation motion are deduced.     

The effect of WO3 source stability on the properties of films deposited by electron beam deposition

This study investigates the impact of high temperature and vacuum on the properties of WO₃ powder during electron beam deposition and evaluates the consequential effects on the as-deposited films. Therein, the grain size and the crystallinity of the source were observed to increase and become non-stoichiometric tungsten oxide (WO_3−x) due to the high temperature and vacuum during the first deposition. As a result of these changes in the source, the optical band gap, E_g, of the deposited film decreased from 3.11 eV to 3.07 eV, and the absorbance was observed to increase. The coloration efficiencies of the deposited films decreased from 23 to 16 cm² C⁻¹. WO₃-incorporated carbon nanotubes (WO₃/CNT) were observed in the source after electron beam deposition if there were some initial carbon impurities in the source prior to deposition.     

Dielectric properties of parylene AF4 as low-k material for microelectronic applications

Using dielectric spectroscopy analysis, three relaxation mechanisms have been identified in 60% semi-crystalline parylene AF4 ([-F₂C-C₆H₄-CF₂-]_n) fluoropolymers. At high temperature, fluorine species located at the electrode/polymer interface involve a space-charge polarization. β-Process assigned to local molecular motions of the C-F dipoles and the γ-relaxation due to local fluctuations of the F₂C-C₆H₄ groups are also evidenced at intermediate and cryogenic temperatures respectively. Space-charge fluorine F⁻, β and γ relaxations obey an Arrhenius law against temperature with activation energy E_a (F⁻) = 1.26 eV, E_a (β) = 0.59 eV and E_a (γ) = 0.29 eV.     

Improved dielectric and ferroelectric properties in Ti-doped BiFeO3-PbTiO3 thin films prepared by pulsed laser deposition

Ti-modified thin films of multiferroic 0.72Bi(Fe_1 − xTi_x)O₃-0.28PbTiO₃ (BFPT, x = 0 and 0.02) solid solution were prepared by pulsed laser deposition. The BFPT (x = 0 and 0.02) films possess a tetragonal structure with highly preferential (001) orientation. The effects of the ionic substitution on the properties of BFPT (x = 0 and 0.02) films have been investigated. The leakage current of the BFPT (x = 0.02) thin film is significantly reduced, and the dielectric and ferroelectric properties greatly improved by the aliovalent ionic substitution of Ti⁴⁺ for Fe³⁺. The BFPT (x = 0.02) thin film exhibits a reasonably high remnant polarization P_r with 2P_r up to 90 μC/cm² at 312 kV/cm and a switchable polarization up to 92 μC/cm² at 417 kV/cm.     

Preparation and electrical characterization of Cd0.8Zn0.2Te/Si thin films

Thin films of Cd_0.8Zn_0.2Te/Si structures were prepared by vacuum evaporation technique. The electrical properties such as activation energy, barrier height, and transport mechanism along with the capacitance-voltage characteristics are analyzed. The zero field activation energy calculated from the saturation current density with the inverse absolute temperature is found to be 0.37 eV and the barrier height is 0.54 eV. As the applied bias voltage increases the activation energy decreases from 0.3 to 0.22 eV for the bias range of 0-2 V. From the observed current voltage characteristics it is found that the surface state density is high for the films deposited at room temperature. From the high-frequency (1 MHz) C-V measurement the built in voltage is found to be 0.15 V. The plot of 1/C² vs the applied bias voltage behaviour is linear, indicating the presence of abrupt junction. The acceptor concentration as obtained from the 1/C² vs bias voltage is 1.4×10¹⁶ cm⁻³.     

Towards an electronic model for CuIn1 − xGaxSe2 solar cells

We model some aspects of highly efficient CuIn_1 − xGa_xSe₂ solar cells with x ≈ 0.3 as well as wide band gap cells with x = 1 and ask for the dominant recombination mechanism which limits the V_oc of these devices. For CuIn_1 − xGa_xSe₂ solar cells with x ≈ 0.3, interface recombination combined with Fermi-level pinning is a possible but unlikely recombination mechanism. We argue that these cells are rather limited by recombination in the quasi-neutral region (QNR) including the back contact. Using the expression for the QNR recombination rate we calculate the derivative of the collection function in the absorber at the space charge region edge which is in reasonable agreement with the experiment. It turns out that the diffusion length must approximate the absorber thickness. Based on this information, we draw a band diagram for a CuIn_1 − xGa_xSe₂ solar cells with x ≈ 0.3 and plot the simulated collection function. For cells with x = 1 (Cu-poor CuGaSe₂), the experimental activation energy of the recombination rate mostly equals the absorber band gap, i.e. E_a ≈ E_g,a = 1.67 eV. As the experimental interface band gap is smaller than E_a, interface recombination must be ruled out. Thus, the carrier lifetime in the Cu-poor CuGaSe₂ absorber should be so small that bulk recombination is more efficient than interface recombination. From this consideration, we postulate an electron lifetime value of 10⁻¹² s for CuGaSe₂.     

Optical and electrical properties of vapour phase grown Zn1 − xCrxTe crystals

The optical and electrical properties of vapour phase grown crystals of diluted magnetic semiconductor Zn_1 − xCr_xTe were investigated for 0 ≤ x ≤ 0.005. The diffuse reflectance spectra exhibited an increase in the fundamental absorption edge (E₀) with composition x and were also dominated by a broad absorption band around 5200 cm^− 1 arising from ⁵T₂ → ⁵E transition. The ⁵T₂ and ⁵E levels originate from the crystal field splitting of the ⁵D free ion in the ground state. The electrical resistivity measurements revealed semiconducting behaviour of the samples with p-type conductivity in the temperature range of 200-450 K.     

Study of the growth of CuAlS2 thin films on oriented silicon (111)

Within the chalcopyrite family the sulphur based compounds CuMS₂ (M = In, Ga, Al) have attracted much interest in recent years because they show a direct wide band-gap covering from E_gap = 1.53 eV (CuInS₂) over E_gap = 2.43 eV (CuGaS₂) to E_gap = 3.49 eV (CuAlS₂). Therefore they are particularly suitable for optoelectronic as well as photovoltaic applications. The CuAlS₂ semiconductor is one of these compounds and has good luminescent properties and a wide direct gap of 3.5 eV making it suitable for the use as material for light-emitting devices in the blue region of the spectrum. To dig up fully its potential a better understanding of the fundamental properties of the CuAlS₂ film itself is essential, which could be achieved from high-quality single-crystalline materials. So, the aim of this work has been to study the growth of multilayer CuAlS₂ thin films on Si(111) substrates at a substrate temperature of 723 K. One, two and three layers with 60, 120 and 180 nm thicknesses, respectively, were deposited on Si(111) substrate. The effect of the CuAlS₂ layer numbers on the structure, morphology and optical properties of the samples was investigated. The X-ray diffraction studies revealed that all the samples are polycrystalline in nature, single CuAlS₂ phase and exhibiting chalcopyrite structure with a preferred orientation along the (112) direction. However, the sample with three CuAlS₂ layers exhibit the highly oriented (112) plane with grain sizes of 80 nm. So we show that this experimental process affects significantly the structural properties of the CuAlS₂ films. Raman spectroscopic measurements indicated five prominent peaks at 193, 205, 325, 335 and 370 cm^− 1. The possible origin of the 370 cm^− 1 peak was investigated and was found to be some local vibration in the structure. The peaks at 193-205 and 335 cm^− 1 were ascribed to A₁ and B₂ modes, respectively.