Study of friction welding characteristics of Al/SiC composite and application of grey-based TOPSIS

The present work investigates the possibility of producing friction welded joints with an advanced material like Al/SiC (aluminum–silicon carbide) composite. The study also discloses the multi response optimization in the process of continuous drive friction welding using a hybrid algorithm of grey-based TOPSIS (technique for order of performance by similarity to ideal solution). The friction welding parameters (frictional pressure, upset pressure, burn off length and rotational speed) were optimized considering the multiple performance characteristics such as proof stress, tensile strength, and microhardness. Taguchi’s L₂₇ orthogonal array was used for conducting the welding trials. The confirmation test was conducted at the optimal setting, to sort out the effectiveness of the proposed hybrid algorithm. The macro photographs of the joints and optical micrographs of the weld zone were studied. The scanning electron microscope images of the fractured surface were also examined to identify the failure mode of joints. The significant improvements in the performance characteristics prove the effectiveness of the grey-based TOPSIS method in experimental welding optimization.     

The optimization of welding parameters for friction stir spot welding of high density polyethylene sheets

Friction stir spot welding parameters affect the weld strength of thermoplastics, such as high density polyethylene (HDPE) sheets. The strength of a friction stir spot weld is usually determined by a lap-shear test. For maximizing the weld strength, the selection of welding parameters is very important. This paper presents an application of Taguchi method to friction stir spot welding strength of HDPE sheets. An orthogonal array, the signal to noise ratio (S/N), and the analysis of variance (ANOVA) are employed to investigate friction stir welding parameter effects on the weld strength. From the ANOVA and the S/N ratio response graphs, the significant parameters and the optimal combination level of welding parameters were obtained. Experimental results confirmed the effectiveness of the method.     

Process parameter influence on performance of friction taper stud welds in AISI 4140 steel

Friction taper stud welding is a new variant of friction welding which has been developed from the principles of friction hydro-pillar processing. This paper considers the effect of weld process parameters on weld defects, macrostructure and mechanical properties in AISI 4140 steel. It also presents 3D residual stress data for a typical friction taper stud weld. Applied downwards force, rotational speed and plunge depth (equivalent to consumable length) of the stud tool were systematically varied whilst measuring tool torque and temperature at several locations during welding. A simple Taguchi analysis was then used to relate process parameters and weld tensile strength. The combinations of parameters leading to high tensile strength are identified and linked to the occurrence of specific weld defects.     

20#钢连续驱动摩擦焊大变形及传热行为的有限元模拟研究

目的研究20~#钢连续驱动摩擦焊接过程工艺参数对焊接过程温度场和变形行为的变化规律。方法基于ABAQUS有限元软件二次开发环境,建立了20~#钢连续驱动摩擦焊接过程中的完全热-结构耦合模型。通过对比模拟和实验获得的焊接温度场、轴向缩短量和飞边形貌,对模型进行了验证。研究了工艺参数对摩擦焊接过程温度场与大变形行为和接头组织与性能的影响规律。结果在不稳定摩擦阶段,峰值温度出现在外表面附近。在稳定摩擦阶段,峰值温度稳定在距焊缝中心约2/3半径位置。接头温度的升高速度随着摩擦压力和转速的增大而增大,摩擦压力和转速对稳定阶段温度场的影响很有限;经过顶锻阶段之后摩擦面温度分布更加均匀,顶锻力越大在接头相同的位置温度越低,顶锻力越大轴向缩短量越大。结论所建立的完全热-结构耦合模型可以模拟20~#钢连续驱动摩擦焊接过程的塑性变形过程,在不稳定摩擦阶段,摩擦压力和转速对温度场和变形的影响较大。在稳定摩擦阶段,摩擦压力和转速对温度场的影响不显著。顶锻阶段轴向缩短量随着摩擦压力、转速和顶锻压力的增大而增加。     

Establishing relationships between mechanical properties of aluminium alloys and optimised friction stir welding process parameters

Friction stir welding (FSW) is a solid state welding process for joining aluminium alloys and is employed in aerospace, rail, automotive and marine industries. In FSW, the base metal properties such as yield strength, hardness and ductility control the plastic flow of the material under the action of a rotating non-consumable tool. The FSW process parameters such as, the tool rotational speed, the welding speed and the axial force play a major role in deciding the weld quality. In this investigation, FSW joints were made using six different grades of aluminium alloys (AA1100, AA2219, AA2024, AA6061, AA7039, and AA7075) using different levels of process parameters. Macrostructural analysis was carried out to identify the feasible working range of process parameters. The optimal welding conditions to attain maximum strength for each alloy were identified using Response Surface Methodology (RSM). Empirical relationships were established between the base metal mechanical properties of aluminium alloys and optimised FSW process parameters. These relationships can be effectively used to predict the optimised FSW process parameters from the known base metal properties (yield strength, elongation and hardness).     

Mechanical properties of copper to titanium joined by friction welding

This paper describes a fundamental investigation of friction welding pure copper to titanium. Friction welding was performed using a brake type friction welder. The effect of friction time and upset pressure on the mechanical and metallurgical properties were evaluated. Under constant upset pressure, the tensile strength made little difference with an increase in friction time, whereas at the constant friction time, the tensile strength increased with increasing upset pressure. Thus, the upset pressure plays a major role over the friction time and friction pressure on tensile strength. Though Cu₃Ti intermetallic compound is formed at the copper/titanium interface during welding, the tensile strength of welded joint is not affected. It may be due to the thickness of intermetallic compound layer at interface being very thin and scattered. The tensile fracture of the welded joint occurred in copper side near the interface.     

Effect of friction stir processing on corrosion resistance of aluminum–copper alloy gas tungsten arc welds

Gas tungsten arc welds in aluminum–copper alloy AA2219-T6 were friction stir processed (to a depth of about 2 mm from the weld top surface) for improving their corrosion resistance. Unprocessed and friction stir processed welds were comparatively evaluated for their microstructural characteristics and corrosion resistance. Friction stir processing was found to result in substantial microstructural refinement with fine, uniformly distributed CuAl₂ intermetallic particles. Friction stir processing was also found to result in a more uniform copper distribution in the weld metal, leading to significant increase in weld corrosion resistance. This work demonstrates that friction stir processing is an effective strategy for overcoming corrosion problems in aluminum–copper alloy fusion welds.     

表面冲击改善铝合金搅拌摩擦焊接头应力腐蚀抗力的研究进展

铝合金广泛应用于航空航天、高速列车等新型装备,搅拌摩擦焊是这些装备的重要制造方法之一。然而,这些焊接结构在建造、服役过程中往往受到腐蚀环境的影响,在外力或残余应力耦合作用下极易发生应力腐蚀。诸多研究证实表面冲击技术可以提高铝合金的抗应力腐蚀性能,然而关于其防护机理尚处于推测阶段,至今没有统一定论。从应力腐蚀的力学因素和腐蚀因素两方面出发,剖析表面冲击对材料力学性能和耐腐蚀性能的影响,在此基础上,提出了表面冲击抑制铝合金应力腐蚀作用机制的研究方向,即通过构建关系模型定量表征改性层力学因素和腐蚀因素对接头应力腐蚀抗力的贡献率,可为阐明表面冲击抑制铝合金FSW接头应力腐蚀的关键因素及作用机理奠定基础,并为冲击工艺的优化提供理论支持。     

Optimization for friction welding parameters with multiple performance characteristics

Friction Welding is a variation of pressure welding method. Though some experience has already been accumulated in the industrial application of friction welding, achieving the optimal processing parameters is still a difficult task. This work is putting a step forward to achieve the best possible design. This paper presents an investigation on the optimization and the effect of welding parameters on multiple performance characteristics (tensile strength and the metal loss) obtained by friction welded joints. A plan of experiments based on the Taguchi method was designed. The output variables were the tensile strength and metal loss of the weld. These output variables were determined according to the input variables, which are the Heating Pressure (HP), Heating Time (HT), Upsetting Pressure (UP) and Upsetting Time (UT). The main objectives of this study are maximization of tensile strength and minimization of metal loss. By statistical analysis, an optimal level of combination of processing parameters is achieved. To validate the optimization, experience were conducted at optimum parameters.     

Friction welding process of 5052 aluminium alloy to 304 stainless steel

Abstract

Type 5052 aluminium alloy was joined to type 304 austenitic stainless steel via a continuous drive friction welding process. The joint strength increased, and then decreased after reaching a maximum value, with increasing friction time. Joint strength depended on the size and shape of the tensile testpiece. Friction weldability could be estimated by electrical resistmetry. The process of friction welding between the aluminium alloy and the stainless steel is proposed to evolve as follows: welding progresses from the outer to the inner region; an unbonded region is retained at the centre of the weld interface with shorter friction time; longer friction time causes the formation of an intermetallic reaction layer at the weld interface; and the reaction layer grows as the friction time increases. When the thickness of the reaction layer increased above a critical value, the joint was brittle and fractured at the weld interface. The joint was sound when there was no unbonded region and a thin reaction layer formed along the entire weld interface.     

Keyhole gas tungsten arc welding of AISI 316L stainless steel

Keyhole gas tungsten arc welding (K-TIG) was used to weld AISI 316L stainless steel of mid-thickness (thickness ranging 6–13 mm). 316L plates of 10-mm thickness were jointed using an I-groove in a single pass without filler metal. The effects of welding parameters on the fusion zone profile were investigated. The weld properties, including mechanical properties, microstructure, and corrosion resistance, were analyzed. The primary weld microstructures were austenite and δ-ferrite. The tensile strength and impact property of the weld were almost the same as those of the base metal, while the corrosion resistance of the weld was even better than that of the base metal. High-quality 316L stainless steel joints can be realized through K-TIG welding with high productivity and low processing cost. The practical application of K-TIG welding to join mid-thickness workpieces in industry is well demonstrated and an ideal process for welding AISI 316L of mid-thickness with high efficiency and low cost is presented.     

Influence of tool geometries and process variables on friction stir butt welding of Al–4.5%Cu/TiC in situ metal matrix composites

Present work describes friction stir welding of in-house produced and hot rolled Al–4.5%Cu/TiC in situ metal matrix composites by using hardened bimetallic tool with varying shoulder surface geometries and other process variables. Joining of the said composite using friction stir welding process has been seen to provide beneficial effects such as grain refinement of the matrix and subsequent redistribution and refinement of reinforcements. A predictive model has also been developed to estimate the weld properties such as tensile strength and ductility with respect to the tool geometry used and input process variables. The X-ray diffraction analysis results of Al–4.5%Cu/TiC butt welds indicated formation of CuAl₂O₄ and CuAl₂ to some extent in the stir zone. Fractography of the weld samples revealed dimpled ductile nature of fracture. Through multi response optimization of the welding parameters and tool geometry, weld strength of 89% that of the base material was achieved.     

Predicting tensile strength,hardness and corrosion rate of friction stir welded AA6061-T6 aluminium alloy joints

AA6061-T₆ aluminium alloy (Al–Mg–Si alloy) has gathered wide acceptance in the fabrication of light weight structures requiring high strength-to-weight ratio and good corrosion resistance. The friction stir welding (FSW) process and tool parameters play major role in deciding the joint characteristics. In this research, the tensile strength and hardness along with the corrosion rate of friction-stir-butt welded joints of AA6061-T₆ aluminium alloy were investigated. The relationships between the FSW parameters (rotational speed, welding speed, axial force, shoulder diameter, pin diameter and tool hardness) and the responses (tensile strength, hardness and corrosion rate) were established. The optimal welding conditions to maximize the tensile strength and minimize the corrosion rate were identified and reported here.     

Mikrostrukturelle,mechanische und korrosive Eigenschaften reibrührgeschweißter Stumpfnähte in Aluminiumlegierungen

Microstructural, mechanical and corrosive properties of friction stir welded aluminium joints Friction stir welding (FSW) is a novel solid state welding process. It allows joining of high strength aluminum alloys, generally considered as difficult-to-weld with conventional technologies, without loss in joint strength. Results of investigations on selfmade FSW butt joints of the aluminum alloys 2024-T3 and 6013-T4 are presented. First, the microstructure of the weld seam and heat affected zone is characterised metallographically and by hardness measurements. By tensile, fatigue endurance (SN) and fatigue crack propagation tests it is demonstrated, that especially the FSW-joints of 2024–T3 sustain high mechanical loadings. Investigations on the corrosion properties reveal a certain sensitivity of the 2024-T3 joints to intergranular and exfoliation corrosion.     

铝/钢搅拌摩擦焊对接焊缝组织及机理研究

为了提高Q235钢板和6082-T6铝合金对接的连接强度,采用搅拌摩擦焊进行对接焊接.研究了不同尺寸和形状的搅拌头、转速、焊接速度和偏移量等对铝钢对接焊缝组织的影响,进而优化了搅拌摩擦焊工艺.实验结果表明:不同形状的搅拌头影响接头"钉子"形状,接头的不同位置处由于受到不同热循环和搅拌导致晶粒尺寸不同,从而影响接头的力学性能.当搅拌针旋转速度260 r/min,焊接速度16 mm/min,针头偏向铝侧0.2 mm时,所得焊缝的拉伸强度为141.204 MPa,为最佳工艺参数.在此最优参数下获得过渡层的厚度约为8μm,界面的主要成分是Fe Al3.     

Influence of tool geometry and process parameters on macrostructure and static strength in friction stir spot welded polyethylene sheets

The effect of important welding parameters and tool properties that are effective on static strength in friction stir spot welds of polyethylene sheets were studied. Six different tool pin profiles (straight cylindrical, tapered cylindrical, threaded cylindrical, triangular, square and hexagonal) with different shoulder geometries, different pin length, pin angle and concavity angle were used to fabricate the joints. The tool rotational speed, tool plunge depth and dwell time were determined welding parameters. All the welding operations were done at the room temperature. Welding force and welding zone material temperature measurements were also done. Lap-shear tests were carried out to find the weld static strength. Weld cross section appearance observations were also done. From the experiments, the effect of pin profile, pin length, pin angle, dwell time and tool rotational speed on friction stir spot welding formation and weld strength was determined.     

Fatigue life assessment of friction spot welded 7050-T76 aluminium alloy using Weibull distribution

Friction spot welding is a solid state welding process suitable to obtain spot like-joints in overlap configuration. The process is particularly useful to weld lightweight materials in similar and dissimilar combinations, and therefore an interesting alternative to other joining techniques (rivets, resistance welding, etc.). Optimum process parameters have been defined using the Taguchi method by maximizing the response variable (the lap shear strength). A study of the fatigue life was carried out on specimens welded with the above mentioned optimized process parameters. Fatigue tests were performed using a stress ratio of R = 0.10. Two-parameter Weibull distribution was used to analyze statistically the fatigue life for the joined overlapped sheets. Subsequently, the Weibull plots were drawn, as well as S–N curves considering different reliability levels. The results show that for a relatively low load, corresponding to 10% of the maximum supported by the joint, the number of cycles surpasses 1 × 10⁶, hence infinite life of the service component can be attributed. Fatigue fracture surfaces were investigated for the highest and lowest loads tested using scanning electron microscope (SEM).     

Process optimization in the self-reacting friction stir welding of aluminum 6061-T6

Self-reacting friction stir welding (SR-FSW), also called bobbin-tool friction stir welding (BT-FSW), is a solid state welding process similar to friction stir welding (FSW) except that the tool has two opposing shoulders instead of the shoulder and a backing plate found in FSW. The tool configuration results in greater heat input and a symmetrical weld macrostructure. A significant amount of information has been published in the literature concerning traditional FSW while little has been published about SR-FSW. An optimization experiment was performed using a factorial design to evaluate the effect of process parameters on the weld temperature, surface and internal quality, and mechanical properties of self-reacting friction stir welded aluminum alloy 6061-T6 butt joints. The parameters evaluated were tool rotational speed, traverse speed, and tool plunge force. A correlation between weld temperature, defect formation (specifically galling and void formation), and mechanical properties was found. Optimum parameters were determined for the welding of 8-mm-thick 6061-T6 plate.     

Comparing bond formation mechanism between similar and dissimilar aluminium alloy friction welds

Abstract

Friction welding of high strength aluminium alloys was considered in the current study. The mechanism of bond formation in dissimilar alloy welding was compared to similar alloy welding. The differences in flow properties between two different alloys of aluminium lead to uneven deformation behaviour while welding. Since flow behaviour directly affects bond formation and strength, it is important to understand its behaviour. Rods of aluminium alloys AA 2024 and AA 6061 were welded to themselves and to each other denoting similar and dissimilar weld systems. Burn-off length, which is one of the important parameters in friction welding was varied in steps to see how it affects the bond formation. The flash geometry of the welds was observed to interpret the flow differences. Reasons for variations in bond formation were discussed with the help of fracture surfaces.     

Influence of Friction Stir Weld Parameters on the Corrosion Susceptibility of EN AW-7075 Weld Seam and Heat-Affected Zone

Friction stir welding enables joining of high-strength, lightweight aluminum alloys, e.g., EN-AW-7075, below the melting point by induced plastic deformation. Therefore, heat transfer into the adjacent regions beneath the weld seam is significantly reduced as compared to fusion welding processes such as laser beam welding. However, specific zones along the weld seam area are susceptible to localized corrosion due to grain growth and the precipitation of intermetallic phases. Thus, several approaches toward lowering the corrosion susceptibility of the heat-affected zone are presented. Special interest is given to increasing the plastic deformation by the use of novel multipin welding tools that eventually facilitate reduced heat input during welding as a result of substantially lower tool revolutions. The corrosion behavior is tested by means of full material immersion tests and electrochemical measurements which provide insight into the corrosion kinetics. Using pre- and postmortem microstructural analysis, the mechanisms influencing the initiation of corrosion can be identified. Supported by in-operando temperature measurements, the varied welding parameters and their interrelationships to corrosion resistance can be derived. Furthermore, recommendations on optimal welding parameters to obtain enhanced corrosion resistance can be deduced.