Experimental and finite element study on the spring back of double curved aluminum/polypropylene/aluminum sandwich sheet

The most prominent feature of sheet material forming process is an elastic recovery phenomenon during unloading which leads to spring back and side wall curl. Metal–polymer laminate sheets are emerging materials that have many potential applications. Therefore evaluation of spring back is mandatory for production of precise products from these new sheet materials. In this paper, the results of spring back evaluation of AA3105/polypropylene/AA3105 sandwich sheet materials have been presented after being subjected to double-curvature forming. Numerical simulation of double-curvature forming process has also been carried out using both implicit and explicit finite element programs. The influences of some geometrical parameters on spring back such as thickness of sandwich sheet and tool curvatures radii have been evaluated.     

渐进成形A3003铝板减薄带分析及数值模拟研究

研究渐进成形过程中板料减薄带的变化,可以提供合理的加工参数,提高板料的成形性能和加工利用率,减少零件破裂失效.基于渐进成形过程中金属板料轮廓的变化与理想情况下轮廓的区别,对渐进成形初始成形阶段A3003铝板减薄带的产生原因和剪切力的变化过程进行了理论分析,并通过有限元模拟分别从未变形区金属板料的长度和强度两个角度对板料渐进成形过程中未变形区下沉的影响,以及成形角度和杨氏模量对变形区回弹的影响两个方面,对减薄带的产生原因进行研究.结果表明:板料未变形区的下沉和变形区的回弹使板料在初始加工阶段形成一段平缓区域,工具头在平缓区域的变形性质发生了变化,平缓区域发生剪切变形导致了板料在初始加工阶段形成了减薄带;渐进成形时减小板料未变形区的长度,增大板料与垂直方向的角度可以一定程度上阻碍减薄带的产生,模拟结果与理论分析相符合.     

薄板类件多点成形过程的数值模拟

以希尔关于弹塑性材料唯一性的充分性条件为理论基础,采用虚功率增率型原理,建立了多点成形的有限元模型,探讨了板材厚度、材质及弹性介质等因素对成形结果的影响,通过数值模拟找出参数合适的弹性介质,并对薄板类件的多点成形过程进行了实验验证.研究表明,通过使用参数合适的弹性介质,可以有效抑制压痕现象的产生,并能保证工件的成形精度;实验验证表明对马鞍形件多点成形过程中压痕现象的模拟是合理的.     

Springback investigation of anisotropic aluminum alloy sheet with a mixed hardening rule and Barlat yield criteria in sheet metal forming

A mixed hardening model has been implemented based on Lemaitre and Chaboche non-linear kinematic hardening theory to consider cyclic behavior and the Bauschinger effect. The Chaboche isotropic hardening theory is incorporated into the non-linear kinematic hardening model to introduce a surface of nonhardening in the plastic strain space. The bending and reverse bending case study has verified the effectiveness of the mixed hardening model by comparison with the proposed experiment results. Barlat’89 yielding criterion is adopted for it does not has any limitation while Hill’s non-quadratic yield criterion is for the case that the principal axes of anisotropy coincides with principal stress direction. The Backward–Euler return mapping algorithm was applied to calculate the stress and strain increment. The mixed hardening model is implemented using ABAQUS user subroutine (UMAT). The comparisons with linear kinematic hardening model and isotropic hardening model in NUMISHEET’93 benchmark show that the mixed hardening model coupled with Barlat’89 yield criteria can well reflect stress and strain distributions and give a more favorable springback angle prediction.     

Automatic determination of bending sequences for sheet metal parts with parallel bends

A method for solving the problem of bend sequencing in sheet metal manufacturing is presented. The algorithm developed divides the part into basic shapes (channels and spirals) and determines the partial sequences associated with them. The complete bending sequences associated with the complete part were obtained from the combination of these partial sequences. To make this combination possible, several strategies were defined to reduce the number of solutions and, therefore, the searching time. All sequences (partial and complete) were checked considering possible part-tool collisions and tolerance constraints. The last stage was to order the sequences by taking into account the total process time. To attain the required process time accuracy, a robot was used for the handling operations. Finally, the sequence associated with the lower process time was selected as the optimal solution.     

High-temperature wettability of aluminum nitride during liquid metal infiltration

The high-temperature wettability of AlN particle preforms with pure molten Cu, Al and Pb is quantified by means of drainage curves measured during pressure infiltration. By integrating the drainage curves obtained in this study, the work of immersion for each system can be estimated, allowing in turn to deduce an apparent contact angle for wetting of AlN by these metals. The influence of system nature and temperature on the apparent contact angle are studied and discussed by comparison with literature values measured using the sessile drop method.     

The effect of corrosion damage and aggressive media on the endurance of aluminum sheet

The article describes the results of an investigation of the endurance and corrosionfatigue strength of grade-D16AT aluminum-clad duralumin with crater-like corrosion pits. It was established that the fatigue resistance of duralumin decreases with increasing depth and surface area of corrosion-induced defects of this kind.Translated from Fiziko-Khimicheskaya Mekhanika Materialov, Vol. 5, No. 5, pp. 529–532, September–October, 1969.     

基于尺度效应的微细薄板本构模型的建立

为了研究厚度对微细板料成形性能的影响,采用厚度分别为0.1、0.2,0.3,0.4,0.5 mm和1 mm的AISI 304不锈钢薄板进行单向拉伸实验.实验结果表明,当板料厚度小于1 mm时,材料的流动应力随着试样厚度的增大而增大,表现出比较明显的尺度效应.在拉伸实验的基础上,将板料厚度因子引入Swift模型,建立了基于尺度效应的微细薄板的本构模型.该模型的计算结果和实验数据吻合较好.     

The effect of annealing treatment on mechanical properties of aluminum clad steel sheet

In this paper, the effects of annealing temperature and time on mechanical properties and bond strength of aluminum clad steel sheet are evaluated. The results indicate that there exist an optimum annealing temperature and time for achieving a suitable formability and bonding strength between the clad layer and base metal. At this annealing time and temperature, the brittle intermetallic layer at the intimate interface of the layers is minimized.     

Experimental study of crack growth in thin sheet 2024-T3 aluminum under tension-torsion loading

To assess the viability of using a critical COD criterion for flaws in 2024-T3 aluminum experiencing tension stresses (S _P) and torsion stresses (S _T), the enclosed work presents (a) a complete set of measurements for critical COD during crack growth under nominal tension-torsion loading, (b) the evolution of crack path with crack growth and (c) crack surface shape as a function of loading. Data from this work will provide an important experimental database for use in assessing the predictive capability of advanced, three-dimensional, crack growth simulation tools. Results for COD during crack growth under tension-torsion loading indicates that the measured critical COD for tension-torsion loading is constant during crack growth. In addition, the value of COD measured using image correlation methods is approximately 8% larger than observed for in-plane tension-shear, with much of the increase apparently due to specimen deformations in the crack tip vicinity. In addition, crack path evolution data for the range of S _T/S _P considered in this work show that the crack experiences both tunneling and slant fracture during loading, with tunneling rapidly decreasing (a) as crack growth progresses for all S _T/S _P values or (b) as S _T/S _P increases. Furthermore, results indicate that tearing during tension-torsion loading always occurs in a manner so that the crack surfaces tend to interfere during growth. Finally, crack surface shape data indicates that, with the exception of a small secondary transition, the direction of crack growth remains stable along a straight line oriented along the initial fatigue crack direction for the range of S _T/S _P being considered.     

Experimental and numerical study of the effect of caul-sheets on corner thinning of composite laminates

Caul-sheets are used to locally reduce or intensify the pressure exerted on composite laminates during autoclave processing. They are often introduced into the process in the last minute to address manufacturing problems as they occur in production. There are multitudes of caul geometries and caul materials used in industry, often quite different, but intended to give the same end result, a well consolidated laminate, free of voids and with uniform thickness. This paper presents the results of an experimental and modelling study where the thickness of composite laminates made with five different caul-sheet configurations was measured and modelled. The experimental study showed that the type of caul-sheet has a significant effect on the resulting thickness profile, and particularly corner thinning. Modelling of corner thinning was done using a special purpose finite element code. Despite the approximations made in the finite element model, the model predictions were qualitatively in agreement with the experimental results, with the model being able to rank the caul-sheets in terms of effectiveness. A simple mechanistic model illustrating what is believed to be the main mechanisms behind thickness variations is also presented.     

Experimental determination of the surface roughness parameter in metal films

New approximate equations for the conductivity of metal films are derived from the theoretical predictions of the surface roughness model previously proposed to describe the effect of the rms surface roughness on the film conductivity. Comparison between exact and approximate values of the film conductivity shows good agreement in well defined thickness and roughness parameters ranges. It is found that these approximate equations are convenient tools for a systematic study of the influence of annealing temperature or condensation conditions on the film surface properties. On the basis of the present model previously published data are reinterpreted giving experimental values for the fractional change in the surface roughness due to the nucleation of a metal overlayer.     

Influence of size effect on the springback of sheet metal foils in micro-bending

To analyze the unloading springback of sheet metal foils after micro-bending process, a constitutive model is proposed based on the surface layer model by which the sheet foil is divided into surface layer and inner portions. For the inner portion, each grain is envisaged as a composite, comprised of grain interior and grain boundary work-hardened layer. The classical composite model is then used to calculate its flow stress. For the surface layer portion, a model without grain boundary strengthening is constructed to represent the flow stress in this zone. The developed method is verified through the comparison of the calculated strain–stress curves with the tensile test results of four kinds of pure copper sheet foils with different thicknesses ranging from 0.1 mm to 0.6 mm. To investigate the effect of thickness and grain size on the springback of pure copper sheet foils, three-point bending tests are carried out. A finite element (FE) model for predicting the springback in micro-bending process is further developed, which takes into account the deformation behavior and orientation of each grain. The influences of grain size and thickness on the springback of sheet foils are investigated. The research results show that the decrease of sheet foil thickness or the increase of grain size results in a big springback. The scatter of springback angle is mainly attributed to the elastic anisotropy of surface grains and increases with the reduction of grains along the thickness direction. A good agreement between the experimental results and the analytical calculations shows that the developed FE model can predict the springback of sheet metal foils well in micro-bending process.     

Processing and properties of ultrafine-grain aluminum alloy 5005 sheet

The potential of ECAP sheet machine build in Monash University to refine the grain size, enhance mechanical properties, and improve deep drawability of the sheet was investigated for a representative aluminum alloy, AA5005. The annealed sheet was subjected to one, two, or four ECAP passes through 90o using route A or route C followed by annealing at 400 °C for 15 min. It was established that only one ECAP pass is required to obtain a significant improvement in both normal and planar anisotropy. A subsequent annealing enabled the recovery of ductility of the material lost during ECAP while maintaining the improved plastic anisotropy.     

反向压力对板材粘性介质压力胀形的影响研究

为研究带有反向压力粘性介质压力胀形过程中接触条件对板材成形性的影响规律,利用DEFORMTM-2D结合韧性断裂准则对覆层板粘性介质压力胀形过程进行有限元分析.结果表明:接触表面无摩擦单纯依靠反向压力能够提高板材成形极限,随着接触表面摩擦系数增大,板材壁厚分布愈均匀,板材的破裂位置由试件顶端转移到凹模圆角处,板材成形极限显著提高.因此,在三维应力状态下有效控制板材所受法向压力和界面摩擦力可以提高板材成形性.     

铝合金板材拉伸变形时橘皮成因的研究进展

本文对铝合金板材拉伸变形时橘皮成因的研究进展进行了评述。首先展示了有无橘皮板材在各种检测仪器下拉伸变形前后的表面形貌、表面滑移带、粗糙度和拉伸断口的形貌,并展示了纳米硬度的测量结果和表征。进一步介绍了最近关于橘皮形成的电子背散射衍射技术(EBSD)的研究成果和X射线对有无橘皮样品的织构测量结果,结合样品的显微组织和力学性能深入分析了橘皮的成因。一系列的结果表明,拉伸变形以后表面橘皮的出现与拉伸变形过程中产生的织构密切相关,而织构的生成又与拉伸过程中晶粒变形的不均匀性有关;晶粒的大小将明显影响变形的不均匀性和织构的生成,粗晶粒比细晶粒更容易产生不均匀变形、晶粒转动和织构,从而导致拉伸变形后生成表面橘皮。由此介绍了粗晶粒和细晶粒拉伸变形后表面状态的示意模型,同时建议对橘皮的形成进行进一步的研究和分析,以完善橘皮成因的定量描述。     

The effect of sheet thickness on fatigue crack retardation in 2024-T3 aluminum alloy

Variable-amplitude fatigue studies of 2024-T3 aluminum alloy were performed to examine the effect of sheet thickness on fatigue crack growth rate retardation. Results indicated that the amount of retardation increased with decreasing specimen thickness. This phenomenon was attributed to enhanced plastic strains under plane stress conditions (i.e. in a thin sheet) which formed ahead of the advancing crack tip as a result of a high load excursion. These strains are believed to produce both crack closure and a favorable compressive residual stress field around the crack tip. Evidence of increased crack surface interference under plane stress situations was verified with electron fractographic observations.     

New procedure for the determination of shear stress–strain curves in sheet metal laminates

Sheet metal laminates are advanced materials with a very interesting combination of properties such as sound and vibration damping capacity. Some industrial applications have already been identified even though there is a lack of data on the behaviour of the material in service conditions and forming operations. The implementation of simulation software tools for these materials is essential to shorten the development time for new applications but it is presently much limited due to the lack of reliable data on the properties of these materials. Shear stress is one of these properties. Available standard tests have proved to be unsuitable mainly because of the geometry of the SML materials that leads to the measurement of the plastic deformation of the metallic layer rather than the shear of the bond. One device and test procedure is proposed in this work to help solve this problem. The obtained results are provided together with a comparison with the conventional tests and the subsequent validation of the entire scheme.     

7B04包铝复合板热变形行为及其对组织演变的影响

利用热模拟实验研究7B04包铝复合板在变形温度为380~450℃和应变速率为0.1~30 s^-1的热压缩性能,结果表明:随着真应变的增加,热加工图失稳区逐渐向高应变速率区域扩展。最适宜的热加工区域为:温度380~410℃,应变速率5~30 s^-1。采用EBSD技术对变形后的组织进行表征,结果表明:随着温度的增加和应变速率的降低,再结晶晶粒趋向于晶界平直化及晶界取向差逐渐增加的方向演变。包铝层在变形过程中主要发生连续动态再结晶,而7B04基体中同时存在不连续动态再结晶、连续动态再结晶(含几何动态再结晶)。材料最佳的热变形温度为410℃和应变速率10 s^-1,此时7B04基体和包铝层的晶粒尺寸均保持在较小的范围内。