Temperature-Induced transition

A nitrogen-strengthened austenitic stainless steel was tested in uniaxial tension at room temperature (295 K) and in liquid nitrogen (76 K). A transition in ductile fracture appearance from a cup-cone fracture at room temperature to shear fracture at cryogenic temperature is observed and correlated to deformation behavior and micromechanisms (void nucleation and strain localization) of fracture. The flow stresses, fracture stresses, and strain hardening rates are all higher at liquid nitrogen temperature compared to those at room temperature, and the significant increases in plastic flow stresses are accompanied by planar deformation mechanisms. At both temperatures, primary void nucleation is observed mainly at scattered, large patches of sigma phase, and initial primary void growth is associated with tensile instability (necking) in the specimen. Postuniform elongation at 295 K leads to secondary void nucleation from small, less than 1 μm in diameter, microalloy particles, leading directly to failure; the strain required for secondary void growth and coalescence is highly localized and does not contribute to macroscopic elongation. At 76 K, uniform strain increases, total strain decreases, and strain localization into shear bands between the primary voids and the surface of the neck leads directly to failure. Secondary void nucleation, growth, and coalescence are limited to shear bands and also do not contribute to the macroscopic elongation. The observations of void nucleation are characterized in terms of a continuum analysis for the interfacial stress at voidnucleating particles. The critical interfacial stress for void nucleation at the lower temperature correlates with the increased flow properties of the matrix.     

A rationalization of tensile ductility and fracture in Alpha-Beta Ti-Mn alloys

Void nucleation and growth were studied in equiaxed α-gb Ti-Mn alloys, containing 1.8, 3.9, 5.8, and 8.0 wt pct Mn, in an attempt to understand why ductility tended to remain relatively constant, as both yield strength and fracture strength increased with increasing Mn content. In addition, measurements of volume fraction of voids,/,, and average void diameter,d _v, in the minimum neck section were made to determine whether catastrophic void coalescence was a possible mechanism of fracture. The values of_v andd _v at fracture were obtained by linear extrapolation of log_v andd _v vs true strain. These data indicated that the average distance between voids in the minimum neck section for Ti-3.9 Mn which contained the largest/, was most likely too large to permit catastrophic void coalescence to take place. These results supported earlier^1,2,3 and current observations that fracture occurred, during tensile straining, when a critical relationship was reached between void length and the fracture stress corrected for necking, σ_fc. It was shown that the changes in this critical relationship with both microconstituent size and volume fraction of phases were balanced by a change in void growth rate to critical size, with the result that strain to fracture remained nearly constant.     

A Mechanical,Microstructural, and Damage Study of Various Tailor Hot Stamped Material Conditions Consisting of Martensite,Bainite, Ferrite,and Pearlite

This paper examines the mechanical, microstructural, and damage characteristics of five different material conditions that were created using the tailored hot stamping process with in-die heating. The tailored material conditions, TMC1 to TMC5 (softest-hardest), were created using die temperatures ranging from 700 °C to 400 °C, respectively. The tensile strength (and total elongation) ranged from 615 MPa (0.24) for TMC1 to 1122 MPa (0.11) for TMC5. TMC3 and TMC4 exhibited intermediate strength levels, with almost no increase in total elongation relative to TMC5. FE-SEM microscopy was used to quantify the mixed-phase microstructures, which ranged in volume fractions of ferrite, pearlite, bainite, and martensite. High-resolution optical microscopy was used to quantify void accumulation and showed that the total void area fraction at ~ 0.60 thickness strain was low for TMC1 and TMC5 (~ 0.09 pct) and highest for TMC3 (0.31 pct). Damage modes were characterized and revealed that the poor damage behavior of TMC3 (martensite/bainite/ferrite composition) was a result of small martensitic grains forming at grain boundaries and grain boundary junctions, which facilitated void nucleation as shown by the highest measured void density for this particular material condition. The excellent ductility of TMC1 was a result of a large grained ferritic/pearlitic microstructure that was less susceptible to void nucleation and growth. Large titanium nitride (TiN) inclusions were observed in all of the tailored material conditions and it was shown that they noticeably contributed to the total void accumulation, specifically for the TMC3 and TMC4 material conditions.     

不同马氏体体积分数双相钢的显微组织变化特征

采用光学显微镜表征了双相钢中不同马氏体体积分数情况下的组织特征,观察结果表明：低马氏体体积分数情况下,马氏体完全呈岛状或者颗粒状;随着马氏体体积分数的增加,组织中出现光学可见的板条马氏体,但颗粒状马氏体岛数量减少;当马氏体体积分数进一步增加,板条马氏体成为主导相,颗粒状马氏体岛几乎消失。结合热力学分析可知,马氏体量增加导致马氏体内部C、Mn含量的减少,这是马氏体形态变化的可能原因之一。     

Void Nucleation and Growth in Dual-Phase Steel 600 during Uniaxial Tensile Testing

Commercial dual-phase (DP) steel in sheet form and comprised of ferrite, martensite, and bainite was subjected to uniaxial tension up to fracture. The damage characteristics were studied through extensive quantitative metallography and scanning electron microscope (SEM) observations of polished sections and fracture surfaces of failed specimens. The observed void nucleation mechanisms include nucleation at the martensite/ferrite interface or triple junction (most predominant), nucleation due to the cracking of martensite particles, and nucleation at the inclusions. The void characteristics in terms of area fraction, void density, void size ranges, and void orientations were analyzed as a function of thickness strain from various regions of the different uniaxial tensile test specimens taken to fracture. The damage analysis suggests that the void nucleation occurs during the entire deformation process with an almost constant rate and this rate reduces before fracture. A nucleation strain of 0.15 has been estimated for this material.     

Role of Microstructure and Temperature on the Tensile Fracture Behavior of Oxide Dispersion Strengthened 18Cr Ferritic Steel

The tensile fracture behavior of oxide dispersion strengthened 18Cr (ODS-18Cr) ferritic steels milled for varying times was studied along with the oxide-free 18Cr steel (NODS) at 25, 200, 400, 600, and 800 °C. At all the test temperatures, the strengths of ODS–18Cr steels increased and total elongation decreased with the duration of milling time. Oxide dispersed 18Cr steel with optimum milling exhibited enhanced yield strength of 156 pct at room temperature and 300 pct at 800 °C when compared to oxide-free 18Cr steel. The ductility values of ODS-18Cr steels are in the range 20 to 35 pct for a temperature range 25 to 800 °C, whereas NODS alloy exhibited higher ductility of 37 to 82 pct. The enhanced strength of ODS steels when compared to oxide-free steel is due to the development of ultrafine grained structure along with nanosized dispersion of complex oxide particles. While the pre-necking elongation decreased with increasing temperature and milling time, post-necking elongation showed no change with the test temperature. Fractographic examination of both ODS and NODS 18Cr steel fractured tensile samples, revealed that the failure was in ductile fracture mode with distinct neck and shear lip formation for all milling times and at all test temperatures. The fracture mechanism is in general followed the sequence; microvoid nucleation at second phase particles, void growth and coalescence. The quantified dimple sizes and numbers per unit area were found to be in linear relation with the size and number density of dispersoids. It is clearly evident that even nanosized dispersoids acted as sites for microvoid nucleation at larger strains and assisted in dimple rupture.

     

Processing of Bimodal Grain-Sized Ultrafine-Grained Dual Phase Microalloyed V-Nb Steel with 1370 MPa Strength and 16 pct Uniform Elongation Through Warm Rolling and Intercritical Annealing

Ultrafine-grained dual phase microalloyed V-Nb steel with ultimate tensile strength of 1371 MPa and uniform elongation of 16 pct characterized by bimodal ferrite grain structure was obtained through warm rolling and subsequent intercritical annealing. The bimodal ferrite grain structure with uniform dispersion of Nb/V carbides and strong γ-fiber texture promoted high strain hardening rate and high uniform elongation and high strength is attributed to ultrafine-grained ferrite and martensite.     

Effect of Strengthening Phase on Deformation Behaviour during Uniaxial Tension of Hot-rolled Dual Phase Steel

Two kinds of C-Si-Mn-Cr series tested steels were designed to obtain dual phase microstructures of ferrite （F） ＋martcnsite （M） or ferrite （F）-bainite （B） with different mechanical properties. Effects of strengthening phase on yielding and fracture behaviours during uniaxial tension of dual phase steel were discussed. Compared with hot-rolled martensite dual phase steel, ferrite-bainite dual phase steel has high ratio of yield strength to tensile strength （YS/TS） and low elongation. During necking process of uniaxial tension, microvoids of ferrite-martensite steel are generated by fracture of ferrite/martensite boundary or martensite islands with irregular shape. But ferrite matrix elongated remarkably along deformation direction, and strengthening phase also coordinated with ferrite matrix. Compatible de formation between ferrite and bainite is distinct. Ferrite-bainite dual phase steel has fine and less microvoid, and phase boundary of ferrite and bainite is beneficial for restraining generation and extending of microvoid.     

A study of void nucleation,growth, and coalescence in spheroidized 1518 steel

The ductile fracture of a spheroidized 1518 steel has been investigated using three types of tensile specimens — smooth tensile, notched tensile, and plane-strain tensile. It was found that void nucleation has two different modes (Type I and Type II) depending on local conditions, the most important of which are the size, shape, and distribution of the particles. By identifying the low-strain-range nucleation behavior (Type I), it was possible to determine the value of plastic strain, ε_N, after which void nucleation at average-sized carbide particles (Type II) begins; ε_N is 0.45 for the smooth tensile case, 0.30 for the notched, and 0.25 for the plane strain. The critical stress for Type II void nucleation, σ_c, is of the order of 1200 MPa. Void growth depends on the macroscopic stress-strain state: longitudinal growth is given by a linear function of applied plastic strain, ε_p, whereas lateral growth shows a linear dependence on the triaxial stress, σ_T. When the local value ofV _f reaches a critical volume fraction of voids (V _f ^cri = 5 ± 0.5 pct), void coalescence occurs in a catastrophic manner, leading to final separation within a highly localized zone. The stress concentration caused by the notched tensile specimen geometry and the localized mode of plastic flow caused by the constraint of the plane-strain state in a Clausing-type specimen were found to affect the substeps of void nucleation, growth, and coalescence. Formerly Graduate Research Assistant, Division of Engineering, Brown University. Formerly Professor, Division of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, RI.     

Observations on void nucleation and growth in α/β Ti-Mn alloys

Void nucleation and growth was studied in three binary equiaxed α-β Ti-Mn alloys containing 1.8 wt pct Mn (alloy 2), 3.9 wt pct Mn (alloy 3), and 5.8 wt pct Mn (alloy 4) given heat treatments to vary the alpha size at constant volume fraction of alpha. Void nucleation rates expressed as number of voids per unit volume,N _v, increased exponentially with true strain, ε. WhenN _v was normalized with respect to the number of alpha particles or grains per unit volume, N_α ^T,N _v/N_α ^T was found to be largest for the largest alpha size in each alloy series. Void size distributions as a function of strain for one alloy containing 3.9 wt pct Mn (alloy 3 given heat treatment B,3B) were presented and, as expected, the largest number of voids occurred at the smallest void sizes. Void growth rates for alloys 3 and 4 were found to increase with increasing particle size and this was ascribed to decreasing constraints to slip with increasing particle size. For alloy 2C with the largestα grain size void growth rates were smallest and this behavior was attributed to the growth inhibiting effects of multiple twinning. Evidence was adduced to show that nucleating voids grow more rapidly than established voids. T. V. Vijayaraghavan, Formerly Graduate Student, Polytechnic University, Brooklyn, NY     

1300 MPa级Nb微合金化DH钢的组织性能

设计了不同相构成的超高强DH钢,抗拉强度均大于1300 MPa,组织由铁素体、马氏体、残留奥氏体和极少量碳化物构成。对比了不同相构成对超高强DH钢力学性能和应变硬化行为等的影响,并深入研究了残留奥氏体在超高强度DH钢中的作用机制。结果表明:随着马氏体和残留奥氏体体积分数的增大,铁素体体积分数的减小,实验钢屈服和抗拉强度同时升高,而延伸率呈先增大后减小趋势。软韧相铁素体体积分数的减小和硬相马氏体体积分数的增大导致屈服强度和抗拉强度增加。相对于回火马氏体,淬火马氏体对强度的提升更显著,在拉伸过程中转变的残留奥氏体的量是引起延伸率变化的主要原因,组织中显著的带状组织会造成颈缩后延伸率的明显降低。通过对应变硬化行为的分析表明,随着真应变的增大,应变硬化率呈减小的趋势,在真应变大于2%后的大范围内,对于应变硬化率,DH1>DH2>DH3,主要与铁素体体积分数有关;在真应变大于5.73%后,DH2钢的应变硬化率高于DH1钢和DH3钢,主要与DH2钢中更显著的TRIP效应有关。除了残留奥氏体体积分数,残留奥氏体中的碳含量对TRIP效应同样有显著的影响。较高比例的硬相马氏体组织结合适当比例的软韧相铁素体和残留奥氏体有助于DH2钢获得最良好的强塑积13.17 GPa·%,其中屈服强度达880 MPa,抗拉强度达1497 MPa,均匀延伸率为6.71%,总伸长率为8.8%,颈缩后延伸率为2.09%,屈强比0.59。      

冲击载荷下低屈服比高强钢板的拉伸性能

通过室温下的仪器化冲击试验和静态拉伸试验,研究一种低屈服比高强度钢板在冲击载荷下的力学性能和断裂机理.结果表明:试验钢的组织由细小岛状马氏体与针状铁素体为主构成,马氏体体积分数为27.6%.与静态拉伸性能相比,在名义应变速率为100 s-1的冲击载荷作用下,试验用钢屈服强度提高31.6%,延伸率不降低.在静态和动态载荷下,该钢均以显微空洞长大聚集的方式发生韧性断裂,但显微空洞的形核和长大方式不同.在静态载荷下,显微空洞形核于颈缩区的铁素体晶粒内部或铁素体-马氏体两相界面处,空洞主要通过两相界面的脱开而形成长大;在动态载荷下,显微空洞主要形核于颈缩区的两相界面处,空洞主要通过马氏体粒子的开裂而形成长大.     

Effect of Cold Deformation on Phase Evolution and Mechanical Properties in an Austenitic Stainless Steel for Structural and Safety Applications

 Abstract： The effects of cold deformation on the formation of strain induced α′ martensite and mechanical properties of an austenitic stainless steel have been examined. X-ray diffraction analysis has revealed that 30% and 40% cold rolling have resulted in the formation of 24% and 315% martensite respectively. Microstructural investigation has demonstrated that the formation of martensite is enhanced with increase in the percent deformation at 0 ℃. Investigation of mechanical properties reveals that hardness, yield strength and tensile strength values increase where as percent elongation drops with increasing deformation. The fractographic observation corroborates the tensile results. Examination of sub-surface at the fractured end of the tensile sample manifests that void/microcrack nucleation occurs in the interfacial regions of the martensite phase as well as at the austenite-martensite interface.     

Alligatoring and damage in the cold rolling of spheroidized steels

Spheroidized 1020, 1045, and 1090 steel samples were cold-rolled to large plastic strains. This lead to cracking by alligatoring in 1090 steel. At strains smaller than required for alligatoring, voids were observed to be widely distributed in all three steels. The nucleation, growth, and coalescence of voids were characterized with quantitative metallography and density measurements. The process leading to alligatoring was analyzed as three sub-processes: the evolution of voids, the formation of an initial crack, and the damaged material finally fracturing. The influence of rolling parameters on void growth under this nominally compressive stress state was also discussed.     

The effect of matrix strength on void nucleation and growth in an alpha-beta titanium alloy,CORONA-5

This work was undertaken to examine the effect of increasing matrix strength at constant equiaxed microstructure on void nucleation and growth in the titanium alloy, CORONA-5, Ti-4.5Al-5Mo-1.5Cr. A martensite and a beta matrix were used in the as-quenched and the heat treated conditions. For each matrix, fine and coarse alpha sizes were produced and a third size of alpha was used for the as-quenched condition of the martensite series. The processing procedures produced an aligned alpha structure which was most pronounced in the fine structure. Void nucleation occurred in an aligned fashion and took place predominantly atα /martensite orα/β interfaces. An explanation is offered for the aligned nucleation in terms of nonuniform deformation of the banded structure which appeared most prominently after heat treatment to produce the coarser microstructure. An incubation strain was found for both types of matrices. The incubation strain increased for the interface in the following order: martensite/martensite,α /martensite, andα/ β. The incubation strain for martensite/martensite interfaces was relatively independent of the matrix strength. Void growth as a function of true strain was generally found to occur in two stages, a slow stage I and a more rapid stage II. Stage II growth occurred as a result of coalescence of voids growing toward one another from nearby particles. Stage II growth was more rapid for the martensite matrix than for theβ matrix. For the martensite matrix void growth rates could not be accounted for either on the basis of strength or strain hardening rates. However, the longest void growth rate was found to increase as the function λ ^N /d _α ^L increased. λ^N is the interparticle spacing normal to the tensile axis and _α ^L is the alpha particle size parallel to the tensile axis. For the beta matrix void growth rates increased with increasing yield s trength and decreased with increasing strain hardening. It was not possible to relate fracture strength to an extrapolated longest void at fracture as was done in earlier studies. This is explained in terms of the nonuniformity of fracture paths observed in the alloy.     

Effect of impurity hydrogen on the deformation and fracture in an Al-5 mass Pct Mg alloy

Air-melted and argon-melted Al-5 mass pct Mg alloy specimens containing impurity hydrogen of 0.27 and 0.04 mass ppm, respectively, were tensile-tested at ambient temperature. The ductility and fracture processes were compared in the two specimens, and hydrogen evolution behavior during the test was also compared using a special testing machine equipped with a mass spectrometer and ultra high vacuum chamber. The air-melted specimen, containing a higher amount of hydrogen, had less reduction in area (RA) and a higher amount of evolved hydrogen gas on fracture. This implied that the impurity hydrogen was in the transgranular voids, which appeared as dimples on the fracture surface. Fracture process analysis involving fractography, load-displacement curve analysis, and optical microscopy on a cross section of the deformed test piece demonstrated that the impurity hydrogen reduces nonuniform elongation by accelerating the nucleation of transgranular voids produced under triaxial tensile stress after necking. Hydrogen evolution was also detected corresponding to each load drop in the serrated flow of the air-melted specimen, supporting the idea that hydrogen atoms are transported with moving dislocations.     

Deformation and fracture of strongly textured Ti alloy sheets in uniaxial tension

The influence of crystallographic texture on the deformation and fracture behavior of strongly textured Ti alloy sheet has been investigated. Uniaxial tensile tests have been performed on Ti-6A1-4V and Ti-5A1-2.5 Sn sheet with both a basal and a basal-transverse texture. The results indicate that, by controlling the ease of through-thickness slip, the crystallographic texture strongly affects the plastic anisotropy of the material but has relatively little effect on the strain-rate sensitivity and work-hardening rates at large strains. A strong resistance to through-thickness slip, manifested by a high R-value, enhances the post-uniform elongation and the ability of the material to retain the load-carrying capacity beyond maximum load. This behavior can be qualitatively understood in terms of the effect of R on the hardening which occurs as the strain state within the diffuse neck shifts from uniaxial tension toward plane strain. A higher R-value also increases significantly the limit strain at the onset of localized necking as well as the fracture strain. The effects of R-value on the limit strain can be qualitatively understood in terms of a critical thickness strain criterion and can be quantitatively predicted by two analyses, one of which assumes an imperfection to be present while the other does not. Formerly Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Michigan Technological University     

Synchrotron Tomographic Characterization of Damage Evolution During Aluminum Alloy Solidification

Fast synchrotron X-ray microtomography was used to directly observe damage accumulation in a semi-solid Al-15 wt pct Cu alloy with a solid fraction of ~0.75 during isothermal tensile deformation. The evolution of damage was quantified in terms of size distribution of internal and surface-connected damage, strain mapping, and volume change to provide an insight into hot tear formation. A combination of existing void growth, void nucleation, and void coalescence all contribute to the final failure, although each dominates during different stages of deformation. Specifically, internal voids are shown to grow and coalesce from the region of high triaxiality at the center of the gage length outward and prove to be the contributing factor to final failure caused by insufficient liquid feeding.     

Anisotropic strain localization in tensile prestrained sheet steel

Multiple forming operations are often needed to stamp complex shapes out of sheet metal. Large changes in strain path can occur from such operations. This study examined the effects of a particular strain path change, tensile-tensile, on the mechanical properties of an aluminum-killed steel. Large tensile specimens were prestrained various amounts in one direction followed by machining smaller tensile specimens at 0, 45, and/or 90 deg to the prestrain direction. The smaller samples were then pulled to failure. For samples pulled in the same direction as the prestrain, the residual strength and ductility were equivalent to those obtained from an interrupted tensile test. In contrast, both the 45 and the 90 deg prestrained specimens showed a larger than expected flow stress and an abrupt change in the nature of the residual ductility at prestrains of 7.5 pct and larger. At 7.5 pct prestrain, the uniform strain, as measured by the maximum-load point on the load vs elongation tensile curve, decreased abruptly. The decrease was accompanied by a corresponding increase in the post-uniform strain. This unusual behavior is explained in terms of a rapid increase in strain-hardening with strain.