Algae in food: a general review

Abstract

Algae are common all over the Earth. Due to their rich chemical composition and content of bioactive substances they have been used in many fields of industry. Their gelling, thickening and stabilizing properties have led to the development of such products as agar, alginate and carrageenan. Moreover, algae are used in the food industry as food supplements and an addition to functional food. Algae are also added to meat products, such as pasty, steaks, frankfurters and sausages, as well as to fish, fish products, and oils, to improve their quality. Cereal-based products, such as pasta, flour and bread, are another group of products enriched with algae. Due to their properties algae may also be used for construction of fermented functional food. Fermented products containing algae are, most of all, dairy products, such as cheese, cream, milk deserts, yoghurt, cottage cheese, and processed cheese. Combination of fermented products offering a high content of lactic acid bacteria with algae possessing biologically active metabolites of natural origin allows not only to compose products with a high content of nutrients, but also to create a brand new segment of fermented food.     

Non-prejudiced Detection and Characterization of Genetic Modifications

The application of gene technology is becoming widespread much thanks to the rapid increase in technology, resource, and knowledge availability. Consequently, the diversity and number of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) that may find their way into the food chain or the environment, intended or unintended, is rapidly growing. From a safety point of view the ability to detect and characterize in detail any GMO, independent of publicly available information, is fundamental. Pre-release risk assessments of GMOs are required in most jurisdictions and are usually based on application of technologies with limited ability to detect unexpected rearrangements and insertions. We present an array-based approach to address these problems and show with three examples (GTS 40-3-2 Roundup Ready and event A5547-127 soybean as well as T25 Liberty Link Maize) that the method can detect and characterize GMOs with high accuracy while making very few prior assumptions about the actual genetic modifications or constructs in question. Based on the array results, a simple polymerase chain reaction-scheme is also described that will enable the user to characterize the inserted sequences to DNA sequence level. The method may provide the biotechnology developers and risk regulators with a useful tool to improve pre-market risk assessments as well as seed producers and other food chain and environmental stakeholders with a platform to improve their ability to detect and characterize GMOs.     

PCR方法对转基因食品定性检测的研究

转基因食品的检测一般基于聚合酶链式反应（PCR）方法，对35S启动子和NOS终止子进行筛选。本实验以转基因大豆、玉米（购自Fluka）为参照物，转基因含量为0％，1％，2％，5％的样品均获得正确识别。以上介绍的方法能对转基因原材料及加工成品实施高精度、高灵敏的检测。     

Quantitative detection method for Roundup Ready soybean in food using duplex real‐time PCR MGB chemistry

BACKGROUND: Methodologies that enable the detection of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) (authorized and non‐authorized) in food and feed strongly influence the potential for adequate updating and implementation of legislation together with labeling requirements. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) systems were designed to boost the sensitivity and specificity on the identification of GMOs in highly degraded DNA samples; however, such testing will become economically difficult to cope with due to increasing numbers of approved genetically modified (GM) lines. Multiplexing approaches are therefore in development to provide cost‐efficient solution. RESULTS: Construct‐specific primers and probe were developed for quantitative analysis of Roundup Ready ^® soybean (RRS) event glyphosate‐tolerant soybean (GTS) 40‐3‐2. The lectin gene (Le1) was used as a reference gene, and its specificity was verified. RRS‐ and Le1‐specific quantitative real‐time PCR (qRTPCR) were optimized in a duplex platform that has been validated with respect to limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ), as well as accuracy. The analysis of model processed food samples showed that the degradation of DNA has no adverse or little effects on the performance of quantification assay. CONCLUSION: In this study, a duplex qRTPCR using TaqMan minor groove binder‐non‐fluorescent quencher (MGB‐NFQ) chemistry was developed for specific detection and quantification of RRS event GTS 40‐3‐2 that can be used for practical monitoring in processed food products. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry     

Detection of genetically modified soya and maize: Impact of heat processing

The analysis of processed foods entails a number of complications, which negatively affect the performance of DNA based detection methods. Heat-processing methods viz. autoclaving and micro-waving, that mimic processing and manufacturing, as model unit operation systems were used to study their effect on the detection of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). This study confirms the premise that high temperature and/or pressure significantly reduce the level of detectable DNA. PCR methods were developed and adapted to target varying amplicon sizes of the trait, construct and event specific gene sequences that occur in MON-810 maize and Roundup Ready^® soybean. Integrity of DNA, recovery and PCR amplicon size (<200 bp) are major factors that direct the successful detection of GMOs in processed foods. The model systems used provide a platform to devise better strategies in developing detection protocols, especially for processed foods containing GMOs.     

Detection approaches for genetically modified organisms in foods

This review examines the various detection strategies for genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in food products. It begins with a brief discussion of the issues related to the technology especially the risks and public concerns. An introduction to the biological aspects of the major GMOs then follows. The bulk of the review is concerned with the different approaches toward detection: (a) PCR-based methods such as real-time, duplex and multiplex, (b) the use of biosensors and microarrays, (c) the presence of commercially available kits, and (d) other methods such as electrophoresis and wavelength-dispersive X-ray fluorescence. Each of these methods is critically discussed and various applications are described.     

Social learning theory and public perception of GMOs: What Blancke et al. (2015) and other plant biotechnologists are missing

There exists a wide chasm between public opinion and scientific evidence on the safety of genetically engineered food, herein referred to as GMOs. Plant biotechnologists give credit to a small community of activists negatively influencing individual minds on this issue, but this approach neglects other social contexts in which such cognition operates. The author argues here that current public opinion on GMOs is a manifestation of the constant interaction between environmental, behavioral, and cognitive influences on this issue. In order to sway public opinion and be consistent with social learning theory, biotechnology advocates and plant scientists will need to move beyond their recognized expertise in order to rework the argument for GMOs in the modern‐day food supply, one that wholly embraces an individual‐level framing of the debate, tantamount to other successful professional trends like patient‐centered medicine. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry     

Determination of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) toxins in dietary supplements by application of a new HPLC/FD method

Over the past years the importance of food additives and the development of so-called novel food increased permanently. Especially, the application of dietary supplements was on the rise. Then, more and more new products based on plants hitherto not used for human consumption were launched. Algae products containing valuable amounts of essential nutrients such as amino acids and trace elements play a decisive role. On the other hand, some algae including the blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) are capable of synthesizing harmful substances depending on species and provenience. Therefore, methods must be available to evaluate possible risks caused by toxins in algae-based dietary supplements. There are different groups of toxins related to marine algae and cyanobacteria. However, both marine algae and cyanobacteria are able to produce Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) toxins which are potential neurotoxins. Hence, analytical methods for PSP determination have to be developed. The method for PSP toxin determination described below is based on ion-pair chromatography of the underivatized PSP toxins followed by post-column oxidation and fluorescence detection (FD). The determination of very low amounts of PSP toxins in different matrices of novel food is possible. In addition, the method allows to compare PSP profiles of various algae-based dietary supplements.     

Recent Advances in Microalgal Bioactives for Food,Feed, and Healthcare Products: Commercial Potential,Market Space,and Sustainability

To combat food scarcity as well as to ensure nutritional food supply for sustainable living of increasing population, microalgae are considered as innovative sources for adequate nutrition. Currently, the dried biomass, various carotenoids, phycocyanin, phycoerythrin, omega fatty acids, and enzymes are being used as food additives, food coloring agents, and food supplements. Apart from nutritional importance, microalgae are finding the place in the market as “functional foods.” When compared to the total market size of food and feed products derived from all the possible sources, the market portfolio of microalgae‐based products is still smaller, but increasing steadily. On the other hand, the genetic modification of microalgae for enhanced production of commercially important metabolites holds a great potential. However, the success of commercial application of genetically modified (GM) algae will be defined by their safety to human health and environment. In view of this, the present study attempts to highlight the industrially important microalgal metabolites, their production, and application in food, feed, nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals, and cosmeceuticals. The current and future market trends for microalgal products have been thoroughly discussed. Importantly, the safety pertaining to microalgae cultivation and consumption, and regulatory issues for GM microalgae have also been covered.     

Detection of Residues of Genetically Modified Soybeans in Breaded Fried Turkey Cutlets

The presence of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in food products is usually ascertained by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or nested PCR if sensitivity has to be increased. Since most, if not all, GMO products are of plant origin, the target sequences are the 35S promoter or NOS terminator. The extreme sensitivity of nested PCR can be misleading if the results are not interpreted correctly, since contamination of non-GMO products with residual amounts of GMO may be positive. We report that breaded turkey breast cutlets labeled as containing GMO soybean products were actually prepared from wheat flour that had been contaminated with transgenic soybean.     

Qualitative and Quantitative Detection of Protein and Genetic Traits in Genetically Modified Food

Due to the market introduction of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in crops, foods, and ingredients, legislation worldwide came face to face with the question of the use and labeling requirements on GMO crops and their derivatives. In this review, protein- and DNA-based methods, such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, western blots, and qualitative and quantitative polymerase chain reaction PCR (Q-PCR) are reviewed. Qualitative detection methods for genetically modified (GM) sequences in foods have evolved rapidly during the past years. The sensitivity of these systems is extremely high, even for processed foodstuffs. However, the availability of quantitative detection methods for GMO analysis is an important prerequisite for the introduction of threshold limits for GMOs in food. The recently introduced labeling threshold for GMOs in food ingredients by the European Union has forced official food control laboratories to apply quantitative PCR methods. Taking the precision of quantitative PCR detection methods into account, suitable sample plans and sample sizes for GMO analysis are discussed. As quantitative GMO detection methods measure GMO contents of samples in relation to reference material, priority must be given to international agreements and standardization on certified reference materials. The rapidly increasing number of GM foods on the market demands the development of more advanced multidetection systems, such as microarray technology. Challenges and problems arising from the inability to detect GM foods for which the modified sequence is unknown, the lengthy standardization procedures, and the need to continuously update databases comprising commercially available GM foods and the respective detection strategies are also discussed.     

PCR Detection of Genetically Modified Organisms: A Review

There are two common approaches for the detection of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs): DNA based methods, mainly founded on the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), which detect genetically modified DNA sequences, and protein based methods, relying on immune assays (e. g. Enzyme‐Linked Immunosorbent Assay, ELISA). The latter detect and measure levels of proteins expressed by transgenic genes. Official standard tests, yet to come, will be based on these two methodologies. DNA based tests are now preferred for their sensitivity and their capability to detect a wider range of constructs. Protein‐based immune assay tests, although less sensitive, are quicker and require less lab skills. Collaborative study results put in evidence that PCR tests are generally well suited for detecting the presence of GMOs on a qualitative basis (yes/no). Difficulties arise when GMOs have to be quantitatively identified in food ingredients. Real‐Time, or kinetic PCR, points out quantification and interpretation limits when quantification has to be done on a very small total DNA amount. An essential requirement for PCR‐based techniques is the knowledge of the GMO‐specific DNA sequence target. Many labs find it difficult to keep up with the rate at which life science companies are creating new GMOs and the finding of adequate reference standards to be used as positive analytical controls.     

Governing GMOs in the USA: science,law and public health

Controversy surrounds the production and consumption of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Proponents argue that GMO food sources represent the only viable solution to food shortages in an ever‐growing global population. Science reports no harm from GMO use and consumption so far. Opponents fear the potentially negative impact that GMO development and use could have on the environment and consumers, and are concerned about the lack of data on the long‐term effects of GMO use. We discuss the development of GMO food sources, the history of legislation and policy for the labeling requirements of GMO food products, and the health, environmental, and legal rationale for and against GMO food labeling. The Food and Drug Administration regulates food with GMOs within a coordinated framework of federal agencies. Despite mounting scientific evidence that GMO foods are substantially equivalent to traditionally bred food sources, debate remains over the appropriateness of GMO food labeling. In fact, food manufacturers have mounted a First Amendment challenge against Vermont's passage of a law that requires GMO labeling. Mandatory GMO labeling is not supported by science. Compulsory GMO labels may not only hinder the development of agricultural biotechnology, but may also exacerbate the misconception that GMOs endanger people's health. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry     

Recombinant DNA in meat additives: Specific detection of Roundup Ready™ soybean by nested PCR

Soybean proteins are widely used by the meat industry as technological coadjutor when producing processed products such as emulsified and ground meat products. Since regulations for the use and labeling of GMOs and derived ingredients are in force in Brazil, a PCR‐based method capable of detecting Roundup Ready^? (RR) soybean was employed for meat additives. Thirty‐two samples of meat additives containing soy proteins were tested for the presence of soybean amplifiable DNA and RR soybean DNA. Twenty‐five samples gave a positive signal for the lectin gene, confirming the presence of soybean amplifiable DNA and 15 samples returned a positive signal for specific RR detection confirming the presence of genetically modified soy. These results demonstrate for the first time the presence of RR soybean in meat additives. This method may be useful for meat industries interested in controlling the presence of RR soybean in additives used for meat products manufacture. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry     

纺织服装产品灰水足迹核算与评价研究进展

综述了灰水足迹核算与评价的研究进展,对纺织服装产品灰水足迹核算与评价中涉及的多污染物影响、时间效应、"潜在水环境影响稀释"和区域评价等关键性问题进行了重点讨论.基于纺织服装产品生产排放废水中污染物种类繁多且理化性质复杂的特点,分析得出:进行纺织服装产品灰水足迹核算时仅考虑特征污染物会导致核算结果偏高,应重点关注多种污染...     

Screening food products for the presence of CaMV 35S promoter and NOS 3′ terminator

Biotechnology has enabled the modification of agricultural materials in a very precise way, thereby improving productivity and yields of economically important crops. There are a number of methods available for detecting genetically modified organisms (GMOs). In the present investigation, a qualitative PCR technique has been adopted in order to discriminate between genetically modified and non‐modified food products. The qualitative PCR assay employs primers specific for genetic elements that are used to generate genetically engineered agricultural crops. Two of the most common primers used for the detection of GMOs, 35S promoter and NOS 3′ terminator, have been tested over a panel of 24 food products purchased from the local market. The results indicated that, out of the 24 food products tested, three products gave positive results with the 35S promoter. The NOS 3′ primers gave negative results with all tested samples. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry     

Impact of potato processing on nutrients,phytochemicals, and human health

Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) are an important global crop that can be transformed into many products impacting several health dimensions ranging from undernutrition, food security and disease prevention to issues of overnutrition including obesity, diabetes, heart disease. Processed potato products are typically categorized as high fat and sodium foods, as well as being classified as a significant source of carbohydrate, in the form of starch. Conversely, potato products are less known for their contribution of key micronutrients (vitamin C, potassium, magnesium), fiber, and phytochemicals (phenolics and carotenoids). More recent insight into the nutritional value of potatoes and the potential of potato phytochemicals to modulate oxidative and inflammatory stress as well as the potential to alter glycemic response has resulted in increased interest in strategies to improve and leverage the nutritional quality of processed potatoes. This review summarizes critical information on nutritional profiles of potatoes and their processed products and describes the state of the science relative to the influence of in-home and common commercial processing on nutritional quality and potential impacts on human health.     

Detection of cauliflower mosaic virus by the polymerase chain reaction: testing of food components for false-positive 35S-promoter screening results

 Today DNA-based techniques are very common for the detection of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in food products. For fast and easy detection of GMOs, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) screening methods, which amplify common transgenic elements, are applied in routine analysis. These techniques do not allow differentiation between GMOs and the natural occurrence of transgenic elements, such as the 35S-promoter of cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) or the NOS-terminator of Agrobacterium tumefaciens, and thus may result in false-positive detection of GMOs. In this study we evaluated three different existing 35S screening systems and report the development of two new CaMV-specific PCR systems. These PCR systems based on CaMV-specific genes allow the identification of positively screened 35S food samples as naturally virus-infected products or plants. Seven food samples tested positive in routine 35S screening analysis and negative in GMO specific systems were investigated using the new virus-specific PCR systems. In all seven samples CaMV was detected. Received: 26 April 1999 / Revised version: 28 June 1999     

Understanding the impact of crop and food production on the water environment—using sugar as a model

The availability of fresh water and the quality of aquatic ecosystems are important global concerns, and agriculture plays a major role. Consumers and manufacturers are increasingly sensitive to sustainability issues related to processed food products and drinks. The present study examines the production of sugar from the growing cycle through to processing to the factory gate, and identifies the potential impacts on water scarcity and quality and the ways in which the impact of water use can be minimised. We have reviewed the production phases and processing steps, and how calculations of water use can be complicated, or in some cases how assessments can be relatively straightforward. Finally, we outline several ways that growers and sugar processors are improving the efficiency of water use and reducing environmental impact, and where further advances can be made. This provides a template for the assessment of other crops. © 2013 Society of Chemical Industry