Coping with sexual harassment: Reconceptualizing women's resistance.

This study explored the underlying structure of women's coping with sexual harassment from a rational-empirical approach. On the basis of multidimensional scaling, clustering, and confirmatory factor analysis across 8 data sets, 4 clusters of coping behaviors emerged, with little variance across the data sets. These clusters bear resemblance to Moos and colleagues' (C. J. Holahan, R. H. Moos, & J. A. Schaefer, 1996; R. Moos, 1992; R. H. Moos & J. A. Schaefer, 1993) distinction between coping strategies that differ in both method and foci. The four clusters that emerged are behavioral engagement, behavioral disengagement, cognitive engagement, and cognitive disengagement. This framework provides insight into the complex forms that women's coping with sexual harassment takes and has important legal implications. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coping with sexual harassment: Personal, environmental, and cognitive determinants.

A multidimensional coping typology and a process model of coping were used to examine coping strategies in response to sexual harassment, the personal and environmental determinants of these strategies, and the cognitive processes underlying strategy choice. Survey responses of 15,404 military members who reported unwanted sex-related attention were analyzed. Strong support was found for the usefulness of both the typology and the model. Choice of specific coping strategies used in response to sexual harassment varied significantly depending on occupational status, gender, climate, harassment severity, and power differential. Cognitive appraisal mediated the determinant-coping relationship. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship between prior sexual abuse and reactions to sexual harrassment: Literature review and empirical study.

This article examines whether individuals who have had prior sexual abuse experiences, including sexual harassment (SH) and child sexual abuse, are hypersensitive to potential SH-related stimuli or overreact to social sexual experiences. Some psychologists and legal scholars suggest that previous sexual abuse or exposure to violence against women produces altered perceptions of current interactions and situations in those women. The review of the extant empirical literature examining such relationships and the findings presented here in an interrelated set of 5 studies provide little general or consistent support for a relationship between prior abuse experiences and current perceptions about SH. Caution is advised in judging either the veracity of an SH complaint or the objectivity of a potential juror's reaction to such a claim on the basis of her prior sexual abuse experiences. The literature review and empirical study lend weight to the irrelevance of such inquiries in judging credibility of SH complainants. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Profiles in Coping: Responses to Sexual Harassment Across Persons, Organizations, and Cultures.

This study explicates the complexity of sexual harassment coping behavior among 4 diverse samples of working women: (a) working-class Hispanic Americans, (b) working-class Anglo Americans, (c) professional Turks, and (d) professional Anglo Americans. K-means cluster analysis revealed 3 common harassment coping profiles: (a) detached, (b) avoidant negotiating, and (c) support seeking. The authors then tested an integrated framework of coping profile determinants, involving social power, stressor severity, social support, and culture. Analysis of variance, chi-square, and discriminant function results identified significant determinants at each of the 4 levels of this ecological model. These findings underscore the importance of focusing on whole patterns of experience--and considering influences at the level of the individual employee and multiple levels of the surrounding context--when studying how women cope with workplace sexual harassment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Thematic sexual responses as related to sexual drive and guilt.

The Ss were 66 males. A special set of cards "with a built-in dimension of sexual relevance" was employed. A "direct relationship was found between sexual drive as measured by rate of orgasm, but not by deprivation, and sexual responses. Self-reported guilt and thematic sexual responses were significantly inversely related when deprivation was held constant. A significant interaction was found for deprivation by guilt, but not for rate by guilt, with thematic sexual responses… . Analysis of individual pictures indicated that pictures of relatively low sexual relevance best measured drive, and pictures of relatively high sexual relevance best measured guilt." From Psyc Abstracts 36:04:4HJ69L. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Compelled mental health examinations, liability decisions, and damage awards in sexual harrassment cases: Issues for jury research.

Controversy surrounds the role that expert psychological testimony may play in sexual harassment litigation. In some circumstances, the defense may compel sexual harassment plaintiffs to submit to a mental health examination by a defense expert. This examination may be used to discover whether the plaintiff has a previous history of sexual victimization, which the defense could use to weaken the plaintiff s claims that the sexual behavior was unwelcome and/or damaging. Some advocates have advised that plaintiffs not place their mental health into controversy, so that they can avoid these compelled examinations. In this article, the authors (a) review the legal basis for compelled mental health examinations, (b) review the relevant psychological literature on jury decision making in sexual harassment cases, and (c) examine the implications of compelled mental health examinations for jury decision making, suggesting avenues for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The (un)reasonableness of reporting: Antecedents and consequences of reporting sexual harassment.

This study places the reporting of sexual harassment within an integrated model of the sexual harassment process. Two structural models were developed and tested in a sample (N=6,417) of male and female military personnel. The 1st model identifies determinants and effects of reporting; reporting did not improve--and at times worsened--job, psychological, and health outcomes. The authors argue that organizational responses to reports (i.e., organizational remedies, organizational minimization, and retaliation) as well as procedural satisfaction can account for these negative effects. The 2nd model examines these mediating mechanisms; results suggest that these mediators, and not reporting itself, are the source of the negative effects of reporting. Organizational and legal implications of these findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of racial and sexual harassment on work and the psychological well-being of African American women.

Research on workplace harassment has typically examined either racial or sexual harassment, without studying both simultaneously. As a result, it remains unknown whether the co-occurrence of racial and sexual harassment or their interactive effects account for unique variance in work and psychological well-being. In this study, hierarchical linear regression analyses were used to explore the influence of racial and sexual harassment on these outcomes among 91 African American women involved in a sexual harassment employment lawsuit. Results indicated that both sexual and racial harassment contributed significantly to the women's occupational and psychological outcomes. Moreover, their interaction was statistically significant when predicting supervisor satisfaction and perceived organizational tolerance of harassment. Using a sample of African American women employed in an organizational setting where harassment was known to have occurred and examining sexual and racial harassment concomitantly makes this study unique. As such, it provides novel insights and an important contribution to an emerging body of research and underscores the importance of assessing multiple forms of harassment when examining organizational stressors, particularly among women of color. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The sexual harassment of uppity women.

In 3 studies, the author tested 2 competing views of sexual harassment: (a) It is motivated primarily by sexual desire and, therefore, is directed at women who meet feminine ideals, and (b) it is motivated primarily by a desire to punish gender-role deviants and, therefore, is directed at women who violate feminine ideals. Study 1 included male and female college students (N = 175) and showed that women with relatively masculine personalities (e.g., assertive, dominant, and independent) experienced the most sexual harassment. Study 2 (N = 134) showed that this effect was not because women with relatively masculine personalities were more likely than others to negatively evaluate potentially harassing scenarios. Study 3 included male and female employees at 5 organizations (N = 238) and showed that women in male-dominated organizations were harassed more than women in female-dominated organizations, and that women in male-dominated organizations who had relatively masculine personalities were sexually harassed the most. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predicting Occupational Coping Responses: The Interactive Effect of Gender and Work Stressor Context.

This study examined whether gender and work stressor context interacted to affect reports of occupational coping strategies. Participants (N=113) were asked to indicate how they would cope with both self-focused (i.e., solitary) and interpersonal (i.e., group) work overload contexts by providing responses to the Cybernetic Coping Scale (J. Edwards & A. J. Baglioni, 1993). Consistent with the hypothesized interaction, male and female participants evidenced similar coping strategies in the self-focused work overload context, whereas female participants showed significantly higher use of coping (T2=.08, p     

There's No Place Like Home: Sexual Harassment of Low Income Women in Housing.

Although sexual harassment in the workplace has received considerable attention, harassment in rental housing is a virtually unresearched phenomenon, despite informal data that it is widespread. This article reviews empirical data and legal remedies on sexual harassment in rental housing, comparing these with harassment in employment contexts. Using data drawn from Title VIII sexual harassment cases, the authors present 3 studies designed to examine the nature of sexual harassment in housing. Despite overall similarities to its workplace counterpart, a number of distinctive characteristics of residential harassment were evident; in particular, the phenomena of home invasion and masculine possessiveness have no apparent workplace parallels. Housing sexual harassment often takes place in the victim's home, creating an intensely threatening atmosphere. Legal and public policy implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Responses of female undergraduates to scenarios of sexual harassment by male professors and teaching assistants.

This study sought to identify some of the factors that lead to assertive responding to sexual harassment. Responses of 120 female undergraduates (aged 19–50 yrs) to hypothetical scenarios of sexual harassment by male professors or teaching assistants were investigated. Two situational variables (ambiguity of the behavior and harasser status) and 1 individual difference variable (coping style) were examined. Participants completed a coping inventory and a questionnaire containing 1 of 4 harassment scenarios, with measures of affect, perceptions of the instructor, acknowledgment of the behavior as sexual harassment, and behavioral responses at 2 stages. Less ambiguous harassment situations were associated with greater negative affect, acknowledgment of sexual harassment, and more assertive responding. Coping style, but not harasser status, was also related to response strategies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sexual assault and other types of sexual harassment by workplace personnel: A comparison of antecedents and consequences.

Although sexual assault by workplace personnel is widely viewed as a type of sexual harassment, little is known about whether these overlapping constructs may possess some unique characteristics. This article compares the theoretical antecedents and consequences of sexual assault by workplace personnel and other types of sexual harassment among 22,372 women employed in the U.S. military. Path analysis revealed that low sociocultural and organizational power are associated with an increased likelihood of both types of victimization. Organizational climate and job gender context are directly associated with sexual harassment but are only indirectly associated with sexual assault by workplace personnel. Both types of victimization are associated with a variety of negative outcomes, but the pattern of negative consequences differs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A more accurate approach to measuring the prevalence of sexual harassment among high school students.

The present study surveyed the prevalence of sexual harassment among high school students. A total of 1,582 students from 18 schools completed a version of the American Association of University Women (1993) survey. Reported sexual harassment events were restricted to those that: a) had been experienced first-hand, b) had occurred within the preceding two weeks, and c) were reported by students who were notably upset by their experiences. Despite this stringent approach, sexual harassment was found to be a significant problem in high schools. Fifteen percent of students were both sexually harassed and very or somewhat upset by their harassment experiences. Nearly half of these upset students were recipients of physical forms of sexual harassment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Labeling sexual harassment in the military: An extension and replication.

Research conducted by V. Magley, C. Hulin, L. F. Fitzgerald, and M. DeNardo (1999) has suggested that women who experience sexual harassment report worse outcomes independent of the labeling process. This study replicates and extends that work. Discriminant analyses were conducted on a sample of approximately 28,000 men and women from the military. The authors included variables similar to those used by V. Magley et al., as well as a variety of antecedent variables. Two significant functions were obtained from the discriminant analysis. The 1st function ordered groups according to the frequency of harassment and accounted for substantially more variance than did the 2nd function, which ordered groups according to whether they labeled their experiences as sexual harassment. The overall results from these analyses demonstrate that labeling incidents as sexual harassment is of marginal meaningfulness in terms of job outcomes and antecedents of harassment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sociocultural attitudes and symptoms of bulimia: Evaluating the SATAQ with diverse college groups.

This study evaluated the utility of the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire (SATAQ; L. J. Heinberg, J. K. Thompson, & S. Stormer, 1995) for the assessment of diverse college groups, including men, women, minorities, and sorority members. Scores from the SATAQ were compared with the Eating Disorder Inventory-2 (EDI-2; D. M. Garner. 1991) for a sample of 405 college students at a large midwestem university. Significant group differences were observed on the scales assessing awareness of sociocultural pressures to be thin and internalization of these attitudes. These scores were highest among the Caucasian women, Caucasian sorority, and Hispanic sorority groups. However, construct validity was only demonstrated for the Internalization scale and was strongest for the Caucasian women, suggesting that sociocultural awareness may hold unique meaning for diverse groups. The need for the development of more specific measures assessing sociocultural pressures, internalization, and the implications for counseling psychologists is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Race as a moderator in a model of sexual harassment: An empirical test.

L. F. Fitzgerald, C. L. Hulin. and F. Drasgow (1995) proposed that victim characteristics, such as race, might moderate the relationships between sexual harassment and its job, psychological, and health status outcomes. This study describes 2 theoretical positions, tokenism and double jeopardy, that could account for this possible moderation by race, as well as the alternative view that no moderating effects exist. The effects of race are empirically examined through simultaneous path analysis. Results indicate that whereas, mean levels of harassment differ across race, the phenomenon of sexual harassment unfolds similarly across races; race is not a moderator of the relationships between sexual harassment and the variables proposed as its antecedents and outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A meta-analytic review of gender differences in perceptions of sexual harassment.

Research on gender differences in perceptions of sexual harassment informs an ongoing legal debate regarding the use of a reasonable person standard instead of a reasonable woman standard to evaluate sexual harassment claims. The authors report a meta-analysis of 62 studies of gender differences in harassment perceptions. An earlier quantitative review combined all types of social–sexual behaviors for a single meta-analysis; the purpose of this study was to investigate whether the magnitude of the female–male difference varies by type of behavior. An overall standardized mean difference of 0.30 was found, suggesting that women perceive a broader range of social–sexual behaviors as harassing. However, the meta-analysis also found that the female–male difference was larger for behaviors that involve hostile work environment harassment, derogatory attitudes toward women, dating pressure, or physical sexual contact than sexual propositions or sexual coercion. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in experiences of sexual harassment: Data from a male-dominated environment.

The goal of this investigation was to examine gender differences in experiences of sexual harassment during military service and the negative mental health symptoms associated with these experiences. Female (n = 2,319) and male (n = 1,627) former reservists were surveyed about sexual harassment during their military service and current mental health symptoms. As expected, women reported a higher frequency of sexual harassment. Further, women had increased odds of experiencing all subtypes of sexual harassment. Being female conferred the greatest risk for experiencing the most serious forms of harassment. For both men and women, sexual harassment was associated with more negative current mental health. However, at higher levels of harassment, associations with some negative mental health symptoms were stronger for men than women. Although preliminary, the results of this investigation suggest that although women are harassed more frequently than men, clinicians must increase their awareness of the potential for sexual harassment among men in order to provide the best possible care to all victims of harassment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)