Failure modes and failure mechanisms of RC members strengthened by NSM CFRP composites – Analysis of pull-out failure mode

The aim of the experimental programme developed in this work was to study the failure modes and the pull-out failure mechanism of RC members strengthened by Near Surface Mounted reinforcement (NSM) technique. The global behaviour of reinforced concrete beams strengthened by NSM and subjected to flexure was investigated. The rods were 6- and 12-mm-diameter carbon–epoxy pultruded FRP. Two vibrated concrete compositions were tested: conventional (VC30) and high-strength (VC60), and one filling material: epoxy resin. The study was carried out up to the failure load, and focused on the failure modes of the beams. The experimental results were compared with the analytical model for the pull-out failure mode of FRP rods. Based on the concept of the anchorage length beyond the last crack, the calculation gives a good approximation of the ultimate bond stress in the cross-section located at the last crack.     

Prediction of the behavior of RC Beams Strengthened with FRP Plates

Epoxy-bonding a composite plate to the tension face is an effective technique to repair reinforced concrete beams since it increases their strength and rigidity. In this paper, the structural behavior of reinforced concrete beams with fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) plates is studied numerically. For it, a numerical damage model is used in order to predict their strength, stiffness and failure modes observed in experimental tests taking into account the influence of different variables such as the amount of steel reinforcement, the type and amount of external reinforcement, the plate length, etc. The consideration of concrete cracking and the yielding of the steel rebars allows to predict in a realistic way the behavior of the strengthened beams and especially the debonding failure mode. In that sense both end and midspan debond can be represented since the model is able to reproduce the tension stiffening phenomenon.     

无粘结预应力高性能粉煤灰混凝土桥梁收缩与徐变变形试验研究

结合洛湛线的建设,以8根不同掺量的高性能粉煤灰混凝土无粘结预应力桥梁的收缩、徐变试验为基础,研究了不同掺量高性能粉煤灰混凝土在荷载长期作用下收缩、徐变性能及其上拱随时间的变化规律,探讨了温度、湿度等环境因素对不同掺量高性能粉煤灰混凝土收缩、徐变的影响。300多天的实验观测结果表明:高性能粉煤灰掺量20%～40%混凝土梁不但具有良好的工作性能和力学性能,而且长期性能良好,与同强度的未掺高性能粉煤灰的梁相比,其后期强度和抗压弹性模量增大,收缩徐变减小,具有良好的社会和经济效益。     

环氧沥青混凝土桥面铺装材料研究与应用进展

随着桥梁设计理念、结构分析、施工技术等不断更新发展与完善,目前桥梁正逐渐朝着大跨度、高强度、长寿命、高耐久等方向发展,同时,未来桥梁也将面临更复杂的建设环境、更多的功能需求,因此必须加强研发与新型桥梁设计体系相匹配的特种桥面铺装材料。环氧沥青混凝土桥面铺装材料以高强度、耐高温、抗疲劳、抗老化等优异路用性能脱颖而出,逐渐受到关注。然而,环氧沥青混凝土制备工艺复杂、施工条件严苛、耐久性不足等问题日益凸显,这些缺点使得其在桥面铺装领域的推广受到一定阻碍。为此,研究者们针对如何提升环氧沥青混凝土使用品质及耐久性进行了深入研究并取得了一定成果。这一系列成果先后在大量桥面铺装实体工程中得以应用,良好的使用效果也为环氧沥青混凝土的进一步推广奠定了基础。环氧沥青混凝土在桥面铺装领域的研究成果可以概括为三个方面:铺装结构组合优化、制备工艺优化、混凝土原材料优化。其中铺装结构组合从早期的单质单层结构逐渐过渡到单质双层、异质双层结构,趋于合理的铺装结构组合使环氧沥青混凝土材料的性能得以充分发挥。制备工艺从热拌法发展到温拌甚至冷拌,在保证环氧沥青混凝土使用性能的同时减少了对环境的污染,并且在一定程度上降低了施工难度。而在原材料应用方面,研究者们不断对双组分环氧沥青与三组分环氧沥青的性能进行对比分析;同时,环氧沥青的改性方式趋于多样化,从单独使用改性沥青发展到同步使用改性环氧树脂,改性剂从纤维发展到高分子聚合物、超支化聚合物等。这些措施不仅改善了沥青与环氧树脂的相容性,也增强了环氧沥青混凝土的相关性能。此外,为使环氧沥青混凝土具有更好的稳定性,在级配优化方面也进行了深入研究。然而目前环氧沥青混凝土的一系列研究成果较为散乱,缺乏对其系统的总结与梳理,且环氧沥青混凝土的性能评价指标及要求仍需深入研究与完善。为进一步确定环氧沥青混凝土桥面铺装材料科学合理的性能评价指标及要求,本文全面梳理了国内外环氧沥青混凝土相关规范,系统调查了大量实体工程及研究动态,对比分析了不同主要原材料的环氧沥青混凝土对其路用性能的影响,最终推荐了环氧沥青混凝土桥面铺装结构组合、原材料类型、级配范围和性能评价指标及要求,为环氧沥青混凝土桥面铺装材料规范完善与质量控制奠定了基础。     

On the mechanical properties of polymer Portland cement concrete

Abstract

In this paper, epoxy which is the most common type of polymer used by civil engineers, and polyester, which is cheaper than most other types of polymers, were utilized to produce Polymer Portland Cement Concrete (PPCC). A rich concrete mix was designed and then five different ratios of cement (0, 20, 40, 60 and 100%) were replaced by either epoxy or polyester, rendering five different mixes for each type of polymer. Three types of samples were cast, compacted and then cured for 28 days. The three types of samples are standard beams of size 150×150×600 mm, standard cubes and standard cylinders. One third of the specimens were tested at room temperature, while the rest of the specimens were heated in an oven for 24 hours. Specimens were heated to two temperature stations of 80°C and 150°C. Samples received for flexure, compression, split tension, and direct shear tests, using a specially manufactured apparatus that was used before and found to be effective. The variations of compressive strength, split tensile strength, direct shear strength, and flexural strength with different variables such as temperature, percentage of polymer and type of polymer were determined and assessed.     

Flexural strengthening of concrete beams with EB-FRP,SRP and SRCM: Experimental investigation

Innovative composite materials for flexural strengthening of concrete structural members have been recently proposed by construction market. They are able to overcome some issues related to traditional composite material, such as high cost and fire resistance. They include composite materials made of different types of organic matrix (i.e., cement-based mortar and pozzolan-reaction cementitious mortar) and reinforcement (i.e., steel fibre fabric). An experimental investigation has been carried out on prestressed-concrete beams strengthened in flexure with traditional (i.e., pultruded carbon laminate bonded with epoxy resin) and different innovative composite externally bonded systems (i.e., steel fabrics glued with different types of adhesive) in order to compare their structural performance between them and with respect to unstrengthened specimens. At this aim, a total of fifteen specimens characterized by an overall length of 2400 mm and cross-sectional dimensions of 120 by 140 mm were subjected to four-point-bending tests. Test results highlighted the high potential of the innovative composite systems for flexural strengthening applications and similar effectiveness compared with the pultruded carbon laminates. The recorded response of the specimens is presented and discussed and the measured strength and deflection of the specimens are estimated. Comparison between theoretical prediction and experimental results shows a good agreement.     

内嵌碳纤维增强塑料板条抗弯加固混凝土梁试验研究

按照正常配筋浇筑了15根钢筋混凝土梁,在部分混凝土梁受拉区保护层内按照不同尺寸沿梁轴向开槽,在槽内嵌入碳纤维增强塑料(Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic,简称CFRP)板条,用专用树脂对槽道进行充填,并对这些梁进行弯曲试验。研究了内嵌碳纤维增强塑料板条加固后混凝土梁的破坏形态、开裂弯矩、极限承载力情况,并与外贴等量碳纤维板条的混凝土梁进行了比较;分析了碳纤维板条加固量及开槽尺寸对承载力的影响及混凝土梁的变形和裂缝发展随加固量及开槽尺寸变化的情况。研究表明,与未加固梁相比,内嵌CFRP板条加固梁的极限承载力提高了11.2%―41.7%;与外贴CFRP板条加固梁相比,其极限承载力提高了15.5%―22.7%。     

Manufacturing and mechanical properties of soy-based composites using pultrusion

Two primary cost driving factors for the composites industry are raw materials and labor. Inexpensive alternative epoxy resin systems based on epoxidized soyate resins are developed for fiber reinforced composite applications. This research investigated on the manufacturing and mechanical characterization of fiber/epoxy composites using chemically modified soy-based epoxy resins. Co-resin systems with up to 30 wt% soyate resins were used to manufacture composites through pultrusion. Mechanical tests show that the pultruded composites with soy based co-resin systems possess comparable or improved structural performance characteristics such as flexural strength, modulus, and impact resistance. Maximum mechanical properties enhancement is demonstrated by the enhanced epoxidized allyl soyate (EAS) formulation. Further property improvement is obtained through using a two-step prepolymer process. The EAS holds great potential as partial supplement for polymer and composites applications from renewable resources.     

RC beams strengthened with NSM CFRP rods and modeling of peeling-off failure

The aim of the experimental programme developed in this work was to investigate the possibility of using Carbon Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) rods to strengthen concrete structural members with the Near Surface Mounted reinforcement (NSM) technique. The global behaviour of reinforced cantilever concrete beams strengthened by the NSM technique and subjected to flexure is investigated. The specific problem of cantilever beams (strengthening outward pressure) was studied. The global behaviour of the cantilever concrete beams was compared with that of beams subjected to flexure with four points load test. A carbon–epoxy pultruded FRP (CFRP) rod of 6 mm in diameter was used. The study was carried out up to the failure load, and focused on the modifications in mechanical behaviour, cracking and failure mode of the beams. An analytical and Finite Element models to predict the peeling-off failure mode were compared.     

钢筋混凝土梁长期变形的计算

基于受弯等效原则对混凝土徐变和收缩引起的截面曲率增大系数进行了分析,进而得到了钢筋混凝土梁的附加变形增大系数,计算公式形式简单、概念清楚、适用于以受弯荷载为主的钢筋混凝土梁的长期变形计算。与该文中3根试验梁和文献中31根试验梁的试验结果对比分析表明,建议方法计算结果与试验结果吻合较好,且优于文献其它方法。     

Creep response of GFRP–concrete hybrid structures: Application to a footbridge prototype

Glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) pultruded profiles have been increasingly used in civil engineering structural applications in the past few decades owing to their high strength, low weight and corrosion resistance. Nevertheless, the low material moduli, which makes design most often governed by deformability and instability phenomena, the brittle failure mechanisms and the high initial costs, have been delaying their widespread use. Hybrid GFRP–concrete structural solutions have been proposed to overcome the aforementioned limitations, namely the low material moduli. Furthermore, GFRP material creep models suggest that such hybrid structures may reduce the creep deformations when compared to full GFRP structures. In this context, this paper presents experimental and analytical investigations about the creep behaviour of a hybrid GFRP–concrete footbridge comprising two I-shaped GFRP pultruded profiles and a thin deck made of steel fibre reinforced self-compacting concrete (SFRSCC). The experiments comprised flexural creep tests on a 6.0 m long footbridge prototype subjected to a uniformly distributed load for up to 2642 h, during which deflections and axial deformations were monitored. In order to assess the influence of loading and environmental conditions on the creep behaviour of the structural system, the prototype was tested for three different combinations of load levels and seasons. Experimental results showed that (i) GFRP–concrete hybrid structures lead to a considerable decrease of the creep deformations of GFRP structures and that (ii) environmental conditions significantly influence the viscoelastic response of these hybrid structures. The models proposed, based on the creep response of the constituent materials, were able to predict the observed structural response for the different load levels and environmental conditions with very good accuracy. Therefore, they are proposed to predict the long-term response of GFRP–concrete structures instead of empirical models based on short-term experimental data.     

粘贴钢板加固钢筋混凝土梁的分离式有限元模型

提出了外粘钢板加固受弯钢筋混凝土梁的非线性有限元模型。该模型中采用了一种特殊的、具有剥离破坏功能的界面单元来模拟混凝土梁和外粘钢板之间的粘结层,这种剥离破坏主要发生在粘贴钢板端部区域和弯曲、剪切裂缝附近。影响这种剥离破坏的主要因素有两个:一是粘贴钢板的端部与加固梁支座距离;二是粘贴钢板的厚度。传统的梁理论不能描述这种加固梁破坏模式,采用有限元方法能全方位地描述这种加固梁的各种性状和破坏模式。数值计算结果与粘贴不同厚度钢板加固梁的试验结果相吻合。     

Prediction of properties of polymer concrete composite with tire rubber using neural networks

The neural network method was used to investigate the influence of filler and resin content on the mechanical properties of polymer concrete with powdered tire waste. The mechanical strengths of 10 experimentally determined combinations using mixed epoxy resin, aggregates and tire powder as filler were optimized using direct neural modeling and inverse neural modeling, by imposing a minimum cost (content in resin). Direct neural modeling gave the optimum composition for obtaining maximum values for compressive strength, flexural strength and split tensile strength. Inverse neural modeling analyzed the possibility of obtaining maximum values of mechanical properties by variations in the dosages of the epoxy resin and tire powder. Neural network modeling generated the mixes with the lowest cost and maximum strength. The modeling method has shown that two mechanical properties can be simultaneously optimized in the investigation domain. From direct modeling, the maximum compressive strength was obtained for a composition with 0.215 (fraction weight) epoxy resin and 0.3 (fraction weight) tire powder. Maximum flexural strength was obtained for experimental values of 0.23 epoxy resin and 0.17 tire powder with a severe reduction noted for smaller resin dosages. The maximum split tensile strength was obtained for a resin dosage of 0.24 and tire powder dosage of 0.17.     

炭纤维强化板及其加固混凝土梁的力学性能

为探寻涂胶对炭纤维布力学性能的影响 , 深入了解其加固混凝土结构的力学行为 , 对制备的炭纤维强化板(CFRP)及其加固混凝土梁 , 分别进行了轴向拉伸和预制裂缝四点弯曲加载实验。对比有胶与无胶纤维布拉伸实验 , 表明环氧树脂不仅粘接纤维布 , 对纤维布有保护作用 , 而且能够显著提高其拉伸强度。通过对加固混凝土梁的 FRP外贴应变片的加载过程进行电测跟踪测试 , 得到了材料结构损伤破坏过程曲线。由力学模型和曲线点拟合的最小二乘法 , 对 CFRP板所受轴力及混凝土的界面剪应力分布进行分析 , 得到轴力及剪应力分布。在载荷的变化过程中 , FRP与混凝土的界面逐渐脱粘 , 使得 FRP的应力集中程度降低 , 有时会出现应变回弹现象。      

Fir and chestnut timber beams reinforced with GFRP pultruded elements

High-performance fibers are being widely researched for repair and rehabilitation in civil engineering structures. The potential benefits, liabilities, and architectural considerations regarding the use of high-performance fibers for reinforcing wood beams are discussed. An experimental program based on a four- and three-point bending test configuration is proposed to characterize the stiffness and strength response of wood beams reinforced with pultruded GFRP (glass fibers reinforced polymers) elements. Improving wood mechanical characteristics through the use of fiber reinforced polymers often involves the use of adhesives, generally epoxy resins. For this reason mechanical, calorimetric and thermo-gravimetric analyses were performed on the resin utilized and bonding effectiveness was studied. Mechanical tests carried out on full-scale wood beams showed that the reinforcement with GFRP beams may produce strong increases in flexural stiffness and capacity. In addition, an analytical investigation based on a simple linear analysis was conducted to predict ultimate load. At the end of this paper results of the experimental program are presented and used for comparison with the analytical procedure.     

An experimental study on the long-term behavior of CFRP pultruded laminates suitable to concrete structures rehabilitation

The rheological behavior of structural materials has a significant role indeed in Civil Engineering, where concrete and FRP (Fiber Reinforced Polymer) materials undergo creep in normal environmental conditions, while steel exhibits a sizable creep only at high temperature (above 400 °C). With reference to RC structures strengthened by means of FRP laminates, FRP creep generally coexists with concrete cracking. The interaction between these phenomena should be taken into account in order to evaluate the structural durability. Here, the first results of a research program on creep in composite pultruded laminates used in Civil Engineering are presented, under various stress levels and in constant environmental conditions (many theoretical and experimental studies on creep have been performed so far in the aerospace and naval fields, but not as many in Civil Engineering). The specimens tested in this project are made of high modulus carbon fiber reinforced polymer – CFRP, whose mechanical properties are tailored for Civil Engineering applications. The tests are still in progress in the Material and Structures Testing Laboratory of the Civil Engineering Department of the University of Salerno (Italy).     

Structural performance of corroded RC beams repaired with CFRP sheets

Corrosion of reinforcement is a serious problem and is the main cause of concrete structures deterioration costing millions of dollars even though the majority of such structures are at the early age of their expected service life. This paper presents the experimental results of damaged/repaired reinforced concrete beams. The experimental program consisted of reinforced concrete rectangular beam specimens exposed to accelerated corrosion. The corrosion rate was varied between 5% and 15% which represents loss in cross-sectional area of the steel reinforcement in the tension side. Corroded beams were repaired by bonding carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) sheets to the tension side to restore the strength loss due to corrosion. Different strengthening schemes were used to repair the damaged beams. Test results showed detrimental effect of corrosion on strength as well as the bond between steel reinforcement and the surrounding concrete. Corroded beams showed lower stiffness and strength than control (uncorroded) beams. However, strength of damaged beams due to corrosion was restored to the undamaged state when strengthened with CFRP sheets. On the other hand, the ultimate deflection of strengthened beams was less than ultimate deflection of un-strengthened beams.     

Stress–strain and deflection relationships of RC beam bonded with FRPs under sustained load

Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) systems that have a strong resistance against long-term deformation must provide improved serviceability to reinforced concrete (RC) members under sustained loads. Consequently, there is a need to develop a method for accurately predicting the time-dependent behavior of RC beams that are externally bonded with FRPs. However, there are very few previous studies that have been carried out or experimental results available, on the time-dependent behavior of RC beams externally bonded with FRP. In order to enable a reasonable prediction, correlations should first be clarified between the stress–strain relationship of the concrete, the reinforcement and the FRP that changes over time. By using these correlations, deflections under sustained loads should then be forecast. In this study, RC beams were fabricated for this purpose. Carbon reinforced polymer (CFRP) and glass reinforced polymer (GFRP) materials were bonded to the tension face of the two respective RC beams. The beams were then placed under sustained loads for 300 days. For the specimens that were externally bonded with FRPs and for the conventional specimen, the strain of the compression and tension reinforcement and the strain of FRP and deflection were measured respectively for comparison. In order to theoretically predict the time-dependent behavior of the RC Beam externally bonded with FRPs, creep coefficients for concrete and shrinkage strains were calculated by using the CEB-FIP and the ACI-209 Codes. For the method used to forecast the stress–strain relationships of the concrete, reinforcement and FRPs that change over time were theoretically clarified and were then compared with the experimental results. The deflection of the RC Beams externally bonded with FRP was predicted by using the ACI 318 Standard, EMM, AEMM, Branson’s method, and Mayer’s method. They were also compared to the experimental results. Subsequently, in the case of RC Beams externally bonded with FRPs under sustained loads, the proposed method proved that it is possible to accurately predict long-term deformations.     

Time-dependent and residual behavior of pultruded GFRP beams subjected to sustained intensities and cold temperature

This paper presents the time-dependent response and residual behavior of pultruded glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) beams. A total of nine beams are tested in four-point bending. One beam is served as control and eight beams are loaded to failure after exposing to three levels of sustained intensities (20%, 40%, and 60% of the static capacity) at room (25 °C) and cold (− 30 °C) temperatures for 2000 h. Time-dependent material parameters are obtained from the test. Analytical approaches are used to predict the behavior of test beams, based on mechanics-based failure criteria and Findley's creep theory. Three-dimensional finite element models are also developed, based on the experimentally obtained material parameters. The GFRP beams demonstrate time-dependent material degradation due to the sustained load. Cold temperature alters the load-carrying capacity and creep response of the beams. Brittleness of the GFRP is accelerated when the beams are exposed to sustained intensities and cold temperature. The contribution of shear deformation to the deflection of the beams increases with sustained load. Although the proposed modeling approaches agree with the experiment, further development is recommended to account for micro-level material deterioration characteristics.     

纤维编织网增强地聚物砂浆加固钢筋混凝土梁受剪性能研究

为研究纤维编织网增强地聚物砂浆（TRGM）加固钢筋混凝土构件的可行性,首先通过双剪试验探讨了地聚物砂浆与碳纤维编织网在常温下和高温后的粘结性能,随后开展了地聚物砂浆粘贴不同层数（1层、2层、3层）碳纤维编织网抗剪加固钢筋混凝土梁的静载试验,并与未加固梁、环氧树脂粘贴碳纤维编织网抗剪加固混凝土梁进行了试验比较。试验结果表明,地聚物砂浆与碳纤维编织网的常温粘结强度达2.02 MPa,在温度不高于300℃时强度退化不显著;在未采取任何锚固措施的情况下,采用地聚物砂浆粘贴单层碳纤维编织网加固梁的抗剪承载力相比于未加固梁提高47.1%,提高幅度约为采用环氧树脂粘贴加固的一半;两层TRGM加固梁中的纤维作用发挥得最充分。最后,提出了TRGM抗剪加固梁斜截面承载力的简化计算模型,模型计算结果与试验结果吻合较好。