Gender differences in moral reasoning.

Explored the possibility that socialization into different sex roles for men and women may contribute to the observed sex difference in moral development. 40 undergraduates were classified as either masculine, feminine, or androgynous according to the Bem Sex-Role Inventory and were administered the Moral Judgment Interview (MJI). For half the Ss, the central character in the MJI dilemmas was a male and for the remaining half, a female. Results reveal that males, when judging from the perspective of a female character, provided reasons for her actions congruent with the Stage 3 level of moral reasoning. However, for the same action portrayed by a male character, reasons for his behavior were in accord with Stage 4. No difference for the female judges was found between the characters of either sex. Regardless of the protagonist's sex, Ss scored at Stage 3. Ss' moral reasoning did not differ according to their sex-role classification. Males, however, held more strongly than females the belief that male decisions on morality are based on law-and-order reasoning, and female decisions are made from an emotional perspective. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When rights and responsibilities don't mix: Sex and sex-role patterns in moral judgment orientation.

Two experiments with 72 college students, 64 24–40 yr olds, and 24 14–16 yr olds investigated C. Gilligan's (see record 1979-03624-001) hypotheses regarding differences in the orientation of focus of moral reasoning. Exp I, using modified versions of the Defining Issues Test preference technique and a shortened form of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, failed to support Gilligan's hypothesis that a focus on responsibilities would be more typical of women's moral thinking and a focus on rights more typical of men. However, relative femininity of the ideal self-concept was associated for the women with a responsibility focus, as hypothesized. Exp II again failed to show sex differences, but replicated the finding of an association between femininity of ideal (but not real) self-concept and responsibility orientation in women. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of considering non-stage-related differences in the patterning of moral judgment. (French abstract) (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A school-based group activity therapy intervention with at-risk high school students as it relates to their moral reasoning.

The main goal of this study was to examine whether group therapy is useful for developing moral reasoning in at-risk youth. This research compared the impact of 10 weeks of group activity therapy (n = 27) and group talk therapy (n = 34) on the moral reasoning of at-risk ninth grade students. Group activity therapy is the developmentally appropriate extension of child centered play therapy for adolescents. Using pretest and posttest scores on the Maintaining Norms Schema subscale of the Defining Issues Test 2 (DIT-2; Rest, Narvaez, Thoma, & Bebeau, 1999), an analysis of covariance indicated significant difference between groups. Implications for counselors who work with this population are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship between moral reasoning and political orientation.

Previous findings indicating a relationship between moral reasoning and political orientation have been interpreted as reflecting the influence of the level of moral maturity on political attitudes. The present study investigated the alternative possibility that individual differences in adult moral reasoning reflect differences in content of politico-moral idealogy. 73 undergraduates, defining themselves politically as left wing, moderate, or right wing, completed a measure of moral reasoning (Defining Issues Test), once from their own perspective and once from the point of view of either a conservative or a radical. Left-wingers achieved significantly higher scores on principled moral reasoning than did the other 2 groups. However, both right-wing and moderate Ss significantly increased their principled-reasoning scores if they responded as a radical. Results support the view that variations in adult moral reasoning are a function of political position rather than development status. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in moral reasoning: A comparison of the use of justice and care orientations.

Examined the adequacy of L. Kohlberg's (1971) cognitive-developmental model as a representation of female moral reasoning. Specifically, the claims of C. Gilligan (1982) that there are 2 conceptions of morality—one described as a morality of justice, on which Kohlberg's scheme is based, and one described as a morality of care, seen by Gilligan as more representative of female thinking about moral conflict—were studied. 101 male and 101 female undergraduates filled out a self-report questionnaire on moral dilemmas they had experienced. They then rated their use of both justice and care orientations in resolving those dilemmas. Ss also completed the Interpersonal Disposition Inventory and semantic differential items. The use of the 2 orientations was examined in relationship to S gender, sex role, and perceptions of the 2 orientations. Few significant differences were obtained, except that female Ss were more consistent in their use of a care orientation and male Ss were more consistent in their use of a justice orientation. More feminine males were more likely to report the use of a care orientation than less feminine males. Male and female reasoning about moral conflict is examined in the light of these 2 perspectives, and the relationship of sex roles to endorsement of each perspective is discussed. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Specificity of meta-emotion effects on moral decision-making.

A recently proposed dual process theory of moral decision-making posits that utilitarian reasoning (approving of harmful actions that maximize good consequences) is the result of cognitive control of emotion. This suggests that deficits in emotional awareness will contribute to increased utilitarianism. The present study explored the relative contributions of the different facets of alexithymia and the closely related constructs of emotional intelligence and mood awareness to utilitarian decision making. Participants (N = 86) completed the Toronto Alexithymia Scale, Trait Meta Mood Scale, the Mood Awareness Scale, and a series of high-conflict, personal moral dilemmas validated by Greene et al. (2008). A brief neuropsychological battery was also administered to assess the possible confounds of verbal reasoning and abstract thinking ability. Principal components analysis revealed two latent factors—clarity of emotion and attention to emotion—which cut across all three meta-emotion instruments. Of these, low clarity of emotion—reflecting difficulty in reasoning thoughtfully about one's emotions—predicted utilitarian outcomes and provided unique variance beyond that of verbal and abstract reasoning abilities. Results are discussed in the context of individual differences in emotion regulation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adolescent moral judgment and perceptions of family interaction.

Oakland Growth Study (H. E. Jones, 1939) Ss and 98 adolescent offspring (qged 10–18 yrs) responded to Kohlberg Moral Judgment Interviews (A. Colby et al, 1987) and reported their perceptions of family interaction during 2 waves of longitudinal follow-up at the Institute of Human Development, University of California, Berkeley. Relationships between adolescent moral judgment and parent and adolescent perceptions of family structure, decision making, value orientation, moral transmission, and interpersonal relationships were assessed, with age, sex, IQ, and parent moral judgment controlled. Adolescent moral judgment was most consistently related to reports of positive intrafamilial relationships and cognitive stimulation of moral reasoning. Sex differences in relationships between family interaction and moral judgment were also found. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Vicarious moral licensing: The influence of others' past moral actions on moral behavior.

This article investigates the effect of others' prior nonprejudiced behavior on an individual's subsequent behavior. Five studies supported the hypothesis that people are more willing to express prejudiced attitudes when their group members' past behavior has established nonprejudiced credentials. Study 1a showed that participants who were told that their group was more moral than similar other groups were more willing to describe a job as better suited for Whites than for African Americans. In Study 1b, when given information on group members' prior nondiscriminatory behavior (selecting a Hispanic applicant in a prior task), participants subsequently gave more discriminatory ratings to the Hispanic applicant for a position stereotypically suited for majority members (Whites). In Study 2, moral self-concept mediated the effect of others' prior nonprejudiced actions on a participant's subsequent prejudiced behavior such that others' past nonprejudiced actions enhanced the participant's moral self-concept, and this inflated moral self-concept subsequently drove the participant's prejudiced ratings of a Hispanic applicant. In Study 3, the moderating role of identification with the credentialing group was tested. Results showed that participants expressed more prejudiced attitudes toward a Hispanic applicant when they highly identified with the group members behaving in nonprejudiced manner. In Study 4, the credentialing task was dissociated from the participants' own judgmental task, and, in addition, identification with the credentialing group was manipulated rather than measured. Consistent with prior studies, the results showed that participants who first had the opportunity to view an in-group member's nonprejudiced hiring decision were more likely to reject an African American man for a job stereotypically suited for majority members. These studies suggest a vicarious moral licensing effect. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Preschoolers' moral actions and emotions in Prisoner's Dilemma.

The moral acts of 19 dyads of 4-yr-olds in a cognitively simplified version of Prisoner's Dilemma game were analyzed in relationship to their friendship, emotions, and processes of conflict resolution. Degree of friendship was rated by teachers; 2 sociologists used a Q-sort of group processes to describe the dyads' interactions. The emotions of each S were coded from videotape independently of his/her partner's and with the sound turned off. Moral acts were categorically identified as equalization, reparation, stalemate, default, and betrayal. These acts were also assigned scale scores on a dimension of moral sensitivity that was independently derived from separate work with 143 undergraduates, who judged the 5 acts in all possible paired comparisons and then rated the moral difference between each pair. These data almost perfectly fitted a model of increasing monotonic function. The degree of friendship between the dyads and their interactive processes—group orientation, positive emotional tone, and active involvement—were positively related to sensitive moral action. Their emotions were related to concurrent acts, and more importantly, predicted their subsequent acts even though they seldom talked about morality. Results suggest that if social scientists' search for practical morality is to be successful, emotional communication needs to be considered. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Transformational leadership and moral reasoning.

Terms such as moral and ethical leadership are used widely in theory, yet little systematic research has related a sociomoral dimension to leadership in organizations. This study investigated whether managers' moral reasoning (n=132) was associated with the transformational and transactional leadership behaviors they exhibited as perceived by their subordinates (n=407). Managers completed the Defining Issues Test (J. R. Rest, 1990), whereas their subordinates completed the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (B. M. Bass & B. J. Avolio, 1995). Analysis of covariance indicated that managers scoring in the highest group of the moral-reasoning distribution exhibited more transformational leadership behaviors than leaders scoring in the lowest group. As expected, there was no relationship between moral-reasoning group and transactional leadership behaviors. Implications for leadership development are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Understanding moral thought: Effects on moral reasoning and decision making.

89 16–18 yr olds' understanding of processes involved in moral reasoning and decision making was examined in relation to the Ss' level of moral reasoning, extent of prudential concerns, and consistency of decision making. Four qualitatively different levels of understanding of moral thought were identified. These levels were related to moral scores in 2 dilemmas: one involving a fictitious other and the other involving the self as protagonist. Ss with less understanding of moral thought were more likely to demonstrate lower moral scores and more prudential concerns in each perspective and to make a different decision (often prudentially rather than morally based) in the self-perspective. Ss who changed their decision in the self-perspective demonstrated lower self-perspective moral scores than Ss who demonstrated decision consistency. It is suggested that Ss with less understanding of the processes involved in moral thought are more likely to use moral reasons in the service of decisions they want to make for prudential reasons. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in moral orientation: A meta-analysis.

C. Gilligan's (see record 1993-98550-000) critique of L. Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning and her assertion that two modes of moral reasoning (justice and care) exist have been the subject of debate within the field of psychology for more than 15 years. This meta-analysis was conducted to review quantitatively the work on gender differences in moral orientation. The meta-analysis revealed small differences in the care orientation favoring females (d?=?–.28) and small differences in the justice orientation favoring males (d?=?.19). Together, the moderator variables accounted for 16% of the variance in the effect sizes for care reasoning and 17% of the variance in the effect sizes for justice reasoning. These findings do not offer strong support for the claim that the care orientation is used predominantly by women and that the justice orientation is used predominantly by men. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The influence of philosophical versus theological education on the moral development of clinical medical ethicists

PURPOSE: Because of the increasing involvement of clinical medical ethicists in patient care and the resultant controversy over the appropriate background, training, and certification of clinical ethicists, this study was designed to investigate whether different educational backgrounds (philosophical versus theological) affected the moral reasoning of clinical ethicists and their orientations toward justice or care. METHOD: From 1987 through 1990, extensive oral interviews were conducted with 50 clinical medical ethicists (26 philosophers and 24 theologians) who were at 32 medical centers in 14 states from all sections of the United States. The interviews were used to gather selected demographic characteristics about the ethicists (age, gender, and educational background) as well as to determine the ethicists' scores for stages of moral reasoning and for moral orientation. Polyserial correlations and multivariant analyses were then performed between the demographic characteristics and the data on moral reasoning and moral orientation. RESULTS: The philosophers and theologians were found not to be significantly different (p > .05) in their moral reasoning skills in terms of either moral stage score or weighted average score. Similarly, the philosophers and theologians were found not to be significantly different in their moral orientations toward justice or care in terms of recognition, predominance, or alignment. No significant relationship was found between age or gender and moral reasoning or moral orientation. CONCLUSION: Based on the results of this study, it appears that clinical medical ethicists, whether philosophers or theologians, are a fairly homogeneous group with regard to their moral development, in terms of both their stages of moral reasoning and their moral orientations toward justice and care.     

The relationship between levels of moral judgment maturity and locus of control.

Studies investigating the link between levels of moral reasoning and perceived locus of control have yielded inconclusive or inconsistent results. This literature is criticized for overlooking the polyfactorial nature of locus of control, the influence of sex as a moderator variable, and the use of relatively small and homogeneous samples. A factor analysis of Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale data scores from 145 male and 144 female university students yielded 1 common factor and 2 different factors across sex. When mean factor scores were compared within sex across 3 levels of moral judgment performance, the following trends emerged: Highest moral judgment capacity was related to internal control in the sociopolitical area for males and external control in this area for females. On the other hand, it was related to internal control globally for females and unrelated to internal control globally for males. A rationale and implications of these findings are presented. (French summary) (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Family education to enhance the moral atmosphere of the family and the moral development of adolescents.

Examined the effects of a course for families in democratic conflict resolution on (a) the family's collective decision-making abilities, and (b) the moral reasoning of adolescent participants. 16 couples and their adolescent children were divided into 3 groups: parents and their adolescents, parents only, and a control group. Both experimental groups met for 10 weekly 2.5-hr sessions and received training in conflict resolution and the use of family meetings. Assessment was based on the Parental Attitude Research Instrument, 2 self-report inventories, a behavioral role-play test, the Kohlberg Moral Judgment Interview, and an analysis of tape recordings of the family meetings. A 1-yr follow-up assessment of the Kohlberg measure was also used. Parents in both experimental groups significantly increased their equalitarian attitudes toward family decision making. Furthermore, families in both groups significantly improved their effectiveness in collective decision making; the parent–adolescent group showed greater improvement than the parent group on most of the variables measured. Finally, the results suggest that adolescents who participated in the training significantly improved their scores in moral reasoning. This gain was maintained at follow-up. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in the correlations among field dependence, spatial ability, sex role orientation, and performance on Piaget's water-level task.

In a study with 8th-grade boys and girls, significant sex differences were found on measures of spatial ability (Card Rotations Test), water-level performance, and sex-role orientation (Bem Sex Role Inventory), but not field dependence (Group Embedded Figures Test). For boys, correlations among field dependence, spatial ability, and water-level performance were significant, while for girls they were not. In contrast, sex role orientation was significantly related to field dependence and water-level performance for girls but not for boys. Results suggest a sex difference in the basis for mastering the water-level task. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Family patterns of moral judgment during adolescence and early adulthood.

Family patterns of moral reasoning were compared in a cross-sectional sample from the Oakland Growth Study (H. E. Jones, 1939a, 1939b) and a longitudinal sample from L. Kohlberg's (1958) study of moral judgment development. The 221 offspring in the 2 samples (121 male and 100 female) ranged from 10 to 33 yrs old. Age, sex, cognitive stage, IQ, SES, and education were controlled in the data analyses. There were consistent family patterns of moral reasoning in the 2 samples when both sex and background variables were controlled. Developmental patterns indicated that, during adolescence, parent moral judgment was related to offspring moral reasoning but was a stronger predictor of moral judgment among girls than boys. During young adulthood, fathers' moral judgment and education were the strongest predictors of both sons' and daughters' moral reasoning. However, education, not parent moral reasoning, limited the moral stage attained by adult offspring. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stimulating transitions in moral reasoning as a function of stage of cognitive development.

Examined L. Kohlberg's proposition that cognitive development is necessary though not sufficient for moral development. The specific hypothesis tested, in a pre–posttest control group design involving 44 female adolescents (mean age 16.2 yrs), was that Moral Stage 3 Ss who have attained "early basic formal operations" are more susceptible to attempts to stimulate moral development than Stage 3 Ss who have attained only "beginning formal operations" and lack the cognitive prerequisites for moral transitions. A series of pretests (verbal reasoning and logico-physical problems, and Moral Judgment Interview) was used to obtain Ss who met the appropriate cognitive and moral criteria. The treatment exposed Ss to Stage 4 reasoning in individual role-playing situations. A moral judgment posttest followed 1 wk later. Results confirm the hypothesis, thus providing evidence for the proposition that cognitive development is necessary for moral reasoning development. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's moral and ecological reasoning about the Prince William Sound oil spill.

Sixty 2nd, 5th, and 8th graders were interviewed on their moral and ecological reasoning about the 1990 Exxon Valdez oil spill that occurred in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Results showed that children understood that the oil spill negatively affected the local Alaskan shoreline, marine life, fishermen, recreationists, and the oil company. Children cared that harm occurred to the shoreline and marine life and conceived of both types of harm as violating a moral obligation. Fifth and 8th graders, compared with 2nd graders, used a greater proportion of anthropocentric reasoning (e.g., that nature ought to be protected to protect human welfare) and biocentric reasoning (e.g., that nature has intrinsic value, rights, or a teleology). Discussion focuses on how studying children's reasoning about nature not only extends the bounds of what counts as moral—to include a relationship with the natural world—but also provides a unique means by which to conduct basic research on children's moral development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How power influences moral thinking.

The authors conducted 5 studies to test the idea that both thinking about and having power affects the way in which people resolve moral dilemmas. It is shown that high power increases the use of rule-based (deontological) moral thinking styles, whereas low power increases reliance on outcome-based (consequentialist) moral thinking. Stated differently, in determining whether an act is right or wrong, the powerful focus on whether rules and principles are violated, whereas the powerless focus on the consequences. For this reason, the powerful are also more inclined to stick to the rules, irrespective of whether this has positive or negative effects, whereas the powerless are more inclined to make exceptions. The first 3 experiments show that thinking about power increases rule-based thinking and decreases outcome-based thinking in participants’ moral decision making. A 4th experiment shows the mediating role of moral orientation in the effect of power on moral decisions. The 5th experiment demonstrates the role of self-interest by showing that the power–moral link is reversed when rule-based decisions threaten participants’ own self-interests. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)