Adolescent drug use and adult drug problems in women: Direct, interactive, and mediational effects.

The authors studied effects of variables assessed in adolescence on problems from drug use in adulthood in a community sample of women. One focus of this 13-year longitudinal study was moderators, which were hypothesized to exacerbate, or attenuate, the effects of early drug consumption on later drug problems. Potential moderators were sensation seeking, social conformity, academic orientation, parental support, depression, and drug problems in parents. Direct and mediating effects of these variables, as well as of drug consumption, were also evaluated. Results showed that most of the significant effects involved sensation seeking and social conformity. In addition, adolescent drug use significantly predicted adult polydrug problems. The effects of sensation seeking are consistent with the view that this variable reflects a sensitivity to drug use, which makes it more likely that drug use gets translated into drug abuse. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Structure of drug use behaviors and consequences among young adults: Multitrait-multimethod assessment of frequency, quantity, work site, and problem substance use.

We examined relations among self-report measures and outcomes of drug use among 739 young adults. Purposes of the study included (a) partitioning measures of drug use frequency, quantity, disruptive substance use (in the workplace and school), and problem use in a multitrait–multimethod framework using latent-variable confirmatory analysis; (b) testing whether drug use frequency and quantity were interchangeable, equally powerful predictors of problem drug behaviors; (c) evaluating whether higher order constructs explained associations among the latent variables, once specific drug use was controlled; and (d) examining the relations between negative drug consequences (arrests and accidents) and the latent variables. Results supported the construct validity of the hypothesized latent factors. Although highly correlated, Drug Use Frequency and Drug Use Quantity were not interchangeable: Quantity was a more powerful predictor of disruptive and problem drug use. A second-order factor of General Drug Use and Abuse accounted for the first-order constructs. Differences between adolescent and young-adult drug use and policy implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relation between adolescent alcohol use and peer alcohol use: A longitudinal random coefficients model.

Longitudinal latent growth models were used to examine the relation between changes in adolescent alcohol use and changes in peer alcohol use over a 3-year period in a community-based sample of 363 Hispanic and Caucasian adolescents. Both adolescent alcohol use and peer alcohol use were characterized by positive linear growth over time. Not only were changes in adolescent alcohol use closely related to changes in peer alcohol use, but the initial status on peer alcohol use was predictive of later increases in adolescent alcohol use and the initial status on adolescent alcohol use was predictive of later increases in peer alcohol use. These results are inconsistent with models positing solely unidirectional effects between adolescent alcohol use and peer alcohol use. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Links from emotional distress to adolescent drug use: A path model.

Administered anonymous surveys asking about drug use, emotional distress, and peer drug associations to 11th and 12th grade high school students (N?=?563). Emotional distress variables accounted for only 4.8% of the variance in drug use. The addition of peer drug associations as a predictor variable increased the variance accounted for to 43.4%. A path model of adolescent drug use based on peer cluster theory was tested using LISREL, and this provided a good fit with the data. As predicted, peer drug associations dominated the prediction of drug use and mediated the effect of emotional distress on drug use, with the exception of a small residual path directly from anger to drug use. The hypothesis that young people take drugs to alleviate emotional distress does not hold up well; emotional distress variables, with the exception of anger, produced only very small and indirect links to drug use. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On becoming involved with drugs: Modeling adolescent drug use over time.

Tested a model of the process of becoming involved with drugs during junior high school among 698 students who did not use alcohol, cigarettes, or marijuana during Grade 7 (T1). The follow-up data points were 12 and 15 mo later (T2 and T3). Weak familial and school attachments fostered use by increasing the likelihood of exposure to pro-drug social influences (drug use offers); weak bonds with school also directly affected cognitive motivations (lower resistance self-efficacy [RSE] and more positive outcome expectancies). In turn, social influences at T1 played a dominant role in initial use at T2, but cognitive motivations were also significant. At T3, prior use assumed the most prominent position. Drug-specific measures of RSE and expected use directly affected later use of that substance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Peer drug associations and emotional restraint: Causes or consequences of adolescents' drug use?

A 3-wave longitudinal design was used to examine the relationships among emotional restraint, peer drug associations, and gateway drug use in a sample of 1,256 middle school students. Structural equation modeling was used to compare 3 models: (1) One model viewed drug use as a consequence of emotional restraint and peer variables; (2) 1 viewed drug use as a cause of restraint and peer variables; and (3) 1 included reciprocal effects. All 3 models fit the data fairly well. However, the reciprocal model fit the data significantly better than either of the others. Within this model, low emotional restraint was significantly related to subsequent increases in gateway drug use among boys. In contrast, peer drug models and peer pressure were not related to subsequent changes in gateway drug use. Changes in peer drug models were, however, predicted by previous levels of gateway drug use. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality€nvironment constellations and alcohol use: A process-oriented study of intraindividual change during adolescence.

Tested the salience of documented risk and protective factors in contributing to intra-individual changes in alcohol use behaviors and negative consequences of use during adolescence within an interactionist and process-oriented perspective. 870 Ss from a longitudinal study of normal adolescent development completed self-report questionnaires. Ss were 12 or 15 yrs old at the 1st test and were retested twice at 3-yr intervals (92% longitudinal retest rate). Person–environment constellations comprising high impulsivity, disinhibition, and deviant peer group associations, and to a lesser extent, low parental control, most strongly influenced high-risk developmental trajectories of use intensity and problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Prospective relationships between drug problems and work adjustment in a community sample of adults.

The prospective relationships between drug problems and work adjustment (e.g., job instability, job satisfaction) were examined in a community sample of 470 adults. Polydrug problems (alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine problem drug use) were both predictors and consequences of work adjustment. In partial support of the impaired functioning theory, polydrug problems predicted reduced job satisfaction 4 years later. Supporting the work-related strain theory, early job instability predicted polydrug problems 4 years later. In support of the theory of general deviance, low social conformity predicted later job instability. Finally, supporting social support theory, early support for drug problems reduced polydrug problems and increased job satisfaction 4 years later. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The drug–crime nexus in a community sample of adults.

The authors tested several theories using prospective data to explain the associations between drug abuse and crime in a community sample of 470 adults. Polydrug problems in early adulthood predicted both criminal behavior and polydrug problems in adulthood. Consequences of drug problems as a young adult included arrests and convictions for drug-related offenses, property damage, and driving under the influence of other drugs. Predictors of later polydrug problems included thefts, driving under the influence of alcohol and other drugs, arrests and convictions for drug-related offenses, and a lack of support for drug problems. Theoretical implications of these findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Multiple protective and risk factors for drug use and abuse: Cross-sectional and prospective findings.

A conceptual elaboration was developed that incorporates many risk and protective factors, and both direct and moderating (buffering) influences on drug involvement were tested. From prospective data, 14 factors related to drug use were selected and assigned empirically to either a multiple protective index (PFI) or a risk factor index (RFI). Analyses examined the relationship of the RFI, PFI, and their interaction on measures of cigarette, alcohol, cannabis, cocaine, and hard drug use cross-sectionally in late adolescence and later in young adulthood. These same variables were used to predict alcohol, cannabis, and cocaine abuse 8 yrs later. Vulnerability as measured by the RFI, PFI, and their interaction was highly associated with drug use in adolescence, moderately associated with certain types of drug use in young adulthood, and strongly associated with heightened drug problems in adulthood. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ventrolateral medullary control of cardiovascular activity during muscle contraction

While adolescent substance use has been the focus of extensive research over the last few decades, Hispanic adolescent substance use has received only limited attention. Studies exploring predictors of Hispanic adolescent substance use have failed to adequately explore the contribution of the family on substance use. The present study examined the relative influence of family, school and peer influences, perceived student substance use, family substance use, and acculturation on a sample of Mexican-American early adolescents using structural equations modeling. The findings varied for males and females. Family functioning and family use directly influenced substance use for males. Family functioning influenced school and peer variables, however, these were unrelated to use. For females, family use and student use directly influenced substance use. Family functioning influenced family use and school and peer attachments. School and peer attachment predicted perceived student use. These findings suggest that family functioning has a primary role in Hispanic adolescent substance use.     

The relationship of family structure to adolescent drug use, peer affiliation, and perception of peer acceptance of drug use

This study examined the relationship of family structure to adolescent gateway drug use and peer-related factors. The sample consisted of 2,121 randomly selected students in grades 8, 10, and 12 from seventeen school districts in northeastern Ohio. Students were administered a self-report instrument containing items measuring drug use and psychosocial variables. For purposes of analysis, the dependent variables included frequency of use of five gateway drugs, degree of affiliation with drug-using peers, and perceptions of peer acceptance of drug use. Comparison groups included single-parent (both mother- and father-headed), stepparent, and intact families. Analyses were conducted separately by grade level. Significant differences were found between groups on the drug-use variables at grades 8 and 10, with adolescents from intact families reporting less frequent drug use, fewer drug-using friends, and perceptions of more peer disapproval of drug use. Interestingly, there were several statistically significant group differences on perceptions of peer acceptance of drug use and the number of drug-using friends at the 8th-grade level. The largest differences were found between the single-parent (father-headed) and intact groups, with adolescents from father-headed families showing more frequent beer and liquor consumption at the 10th-grade level.     

Consequences of adolescent drug use on young adult job behavior and job satisfaction.

Longitudinal data (N?=?785) collected during Ss' high school years (1971–1973) and in 1981 were used to assess the influence of adolescent drug use on adult job behaviors, job satisfaction, and adverse terminations while accounting for concurrent adult drug use, years of drug use, and adult work-related indicators in confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) and predictive path models. Although significantly related in the CFAs, higher adolescent achievement motivation did not predict less adult drug use when adolescent drug use was included as a control. Less achievement motivation in adolescence significantly predicted more negative job behaviors and less job satisfaction, but not terminations. Correlations were significant between more adolescent drug use and less adolescent achievement motivation and between adult job problems and adult drug use. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The influence of peers on young adult substance use.

Data collected from 294 young adults, ages 19 to 25, and both a same- and an opposite-gender best friend or mate across 3 annual assessments were analyzed to examine the similarity to and influence of the peer on the young adult's substance use. The authors found similarity across time between both peers and the young adult in cigarette use, alcohol use, binge drinking, and, in most cases, marijuana use. In prospective analyses, peer use predicted young adult cigarette use, binge drinking, and problem use by the young adults. Results were generally consistent across gender and for both same- and opposite-gender peers. Findings emphasize peer influence contribution to young adult substance use and suggest the design of interventions that involve both young adults and their peers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Structural-equation models of current drug use: Are appropriate models so simple(x)?

The simplex and common-factor models of drug use were compared using maximum-likelihood estimation of latent variable structural models in two samples: a sample of 226 high school students, using ratio-scale measures of current drug use, and a sample of 310 industrial workers and 811 college students, using ordinal-scale measures of current drug use. Latent variables of alcohol, marihuana, enhancer hard drugs, and dampener hard drugs were specified in a series of structural models. Contrary to previous findings with cumulative drug-use data, the common-factor model provided a more acceptable representation of the observed current-use data than did the simplex model in both samples. In addition, the similarity of results across both of these samples supports recent contentions by Huba and Bentler (1982) that quantitatively measured variables are not necessarily superior to qualitative, ordinal indicators in latent variable models of drug use. (49 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age of onset of first alcohol intoxication and subsequent alcohol use among urban American Indian adolescents.

The objective was to assess the effect of early onset intoxication on subsequent alcohol involvement among urban American Indian youth. The data come from the American Indian Research (AIR) project, a panel study of urban Indian youth residing in King County, Washington. Data were collected annually from the adolescent and his/her primary caregiver from the 1988–89 school year to the 1996–97 school year, providing a total of nine waves of data. Early intoxication (by age 14) was related to delinquency, family history of alcohol abuse or dependence, poverty, broken family structure, less family cohesiveness, and more family conflict. The effects of these characteristics were, therefore, partialed out in testing effects of early intoxication on later alcohol involvement. Two-part latent growth models of alcohol use and alcohol problems were specified. Effects of early onset intoxication on these trajectories, as well as lifetime alcohol abuse or dependence by the transition to young adulthood, were examined. Findings indicate that adolescents who experienced their first intoxication early (by age 14), used alcohol more heavily from the ages of 16 to 18, experienced more problems related to the alcohol's use from the ages of 16 to 18, and were more likely to have a diagnosed alcohol disorder by the final wave of data collection. Congruent with similar studies in the general population, early intoxication appears to be associated with a deleterious course of alcohol involvement during adolescence and into the transition to young adulthood among urban American Indian youth. Implications for prevention are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Do Parents Still Matter? Parent and Peer Influences on Alcohol Involvement Among Recent High School Graduates.

This study investigated the influences of peer and parent variables on alcohol use and problems in a sample of late adolescents in the summer immediately prior to entry into college. Participants (N = 556) completed a mail survey assessing peer influences (alcohol offers, social modeling, perceived norms), parental behaviors (nurturance, monitoring), and attitudes and values (disapproval for heavy drinking, permissiveness for drinking), and alcohol use and alcohol-related consequences. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated significant associations between both peer and parental influences and alcohol involvement, and showed that parental influences moderated peer-influence-drinking behavior, such that higher levels of perceived parental involvement were associated with weaker relations between peer influences and alcohol use and problems. These findings suggest that parents continue to exert an influential role in late adolescent drinking behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Drug use and intimate relationships among women and men: Separating specific from general effects in prospective data using structural equation models.

This article presents the use of specific paths in structural equation models (SEMs) that allow separation and tests of both unique and common (latent) aspects of measured variables. Cross-sectional studies have established that problems in intimate relationships are related to drug use, but the direction of these effects is unclear and is best addressed by using SEMs with prospective data. Reciprocal effects between constructs of polydrug use and relationship quality were examined for 307 young women and 117 young men over a 4-yr period while social conformity was controlled for. No cross-lagged effects were found between latent constructs, except for polydrug use, which increased later divorces for women. However, specific paths allowed tests of types of drug use and relationship quality as both predictors and consequences. There were 8 effects for women and 6 for men from specific measures of drug use that adversely affected aspects of relationship quality. Conversely, only one effect was found from relationship quality to drug use variables for both genders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived awareness and caring influences alcohol use by high school and college students.

Perceived awareness and caring, or beliefs about how much parents and peers know and care about students' behavior, was assessed in relation to students' drinking patterns. Prior to and at the end of the first semester at college, participants completed Web-based surveys assessing alcohol use, family and social motives, and perceived awareness and caring from parents and peers. Family motives moderated the effect of perceived parental awareness and caring on the quantity of high school alcohol use, whereas social motives moderated the effect of perceived peer awareness and caring on frequency and quantity of college drinking. Longitudinally, college alcohol use was predicted by perceived awareness and caring from parents. Perceived awareness and caring may affect alcohol use whereby parents exert influence during high school but peers are more influential in college. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptions of peer pressure, peer conformity dispositions, and self-reported behavior among adolescents.

Two samples, consisting of a total of 1,027 6th–12th graders from separate communities, were given measures of peer conformity dispositions (willingness to accede to peer pressure), perceptions of peer pressure, and self-reported frequency of behavior concerning 2 major aspects of teenage life: peer involvement (degree of socializing with friends) and misconduct (drug/alcohol use, sexual intercourse, and minor delinquent behavior). Results indicate that Ss perceived less peer pressure toward misconduct than peer involvement and also were comparatively less willing to follow peers in misconduct. Nevertheless, perceived peer pressure and conformity disposition accounted for more of the variance in self-reported misconduct than in self-reported peer involvement. Age differences were modest and varied among measures and samples. The samples also differed in the magnitude of perceived pressures and conformity dispositions as well as in the degree to which these variables were associated with self-reported behavior. It is concluded that the findings reveal a complexity in adolescent conformity that bears elaboration in future research. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)