An investigation of the relationship between psychological androgyny and components of self-concept.

357 college students participated in a study designed to investigate whether the higher levels of self-esteem and self-concept of androgynous individuals are due to an integration of both masculine and feminine traits or due only to a high level of masculinity. Ss completed the Bem Sex-Role Inventory and a semantic differential scale previously shown to assess 4 dimensions of the self-concept. The androgynous group scored higher than the undifferentiated group on adjustment to the environment. The androgynous and masculine groups scored higher than the feminine and undifferentiated groups on achievement/leadership, which tends to reflect an instrumental role. Androgynous and feminine Ss scored higher than masculine and undifferentiated Ss on congeniality/sociability, which reflects an expressive role. The masculine and feminine groups scored at appropriate ends of the masculinity/femininity self-concept dimension, with the androgynous and undifferentiated groups at intermediate levels. These results support S. L. Bem's (1975, 1977) theory of androgynous flexibility. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological androgyny and sex role flexibility: A test of two hypotheses.

In a conceptual replication and extension of a study by S. L. Bem and E. Lenney (1976), 90 male and 118 female college students rated their comfort in and preference for performing several series of masculine, feminine, and neutral activities. Correlations between ratings and scores on the masculinity (instrumentality) and femininity (expressiveness) scales of the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ) of J. T. Spence and R. L. Helmreich (1978) tended to be theoretically reasonable in sign but in each sex were low in magnitude and only occasionally significant. Classification of Ss into 4 PAQ groups (androgynous, masculine, feminine, and undifferentiated) on their joint masculinity and femininity scores revealed that androgynous and masculine Ss of both sexes had higher comfort ratings, independent of type of task, than did feminine and undifferentiated Ss, suggesting the importance of instrumentality and expressiveness per se. For forced-choice preference ratings, significant differences were found only in males, masculine Ss having a stronger preference for sex-typed tasks than those in other categorical groups. The PAQ variable, however, accounted for only a small percentage of the variance. The data support the Spence-Helmreich hypotheses that the PAQ and similar instruments are largely measures of instrumental and expressive personality traits rather than sex roles and that these personality dimensions are only minimally related to many sex role behaviors. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Love and sex role stereotypes: Do macho men and feminine women make better lovers?

Examined the relation of sex and sex-role orientation to self-reported feelings and behaviors of love. It was hypothesized that (a) sex role would have a greater effect on love feelings and behaviors than sex, and (b) androgynous individuals would experience love differently than sex-typed individuals. Data were gathered from 100 male and 136 female college students who identified themselves as being in a love relationship. Ss completed a battery of questionnaires, including the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. Both hypotheses were supported. There were no sex differences in self-reported love. Androgynous Ss differed from masculine Ss on awareness of love feelings, expression of love, nonmaterial evidence of love, toleration of the loved one's faults, and the total expression of love in their relationship. The androgynous Ss differed from feminine Ss on awareness, willingness to express feelings, and toleration of faults. In all comparisons, androgynous Ss were more loving than sex-typed and undifferentiated Ss. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A different perspective on androgyny: Evaluations of masculine and feminine personality characteristics.

Hypothesized that androgynous Ss would be liked best and perceived as most adjusted (Exp I) and also be perceived to be as instrumental as masculine Ss and as expressive as feminine Ss (Exp II). 179 undergraduates served as Ss in Exp I and 160 undergraduates served in Exp II. Personal Attributes Questionnaires ostensibly filled out by others were the stimuli evaluated. These stimuli were constructed so that the stimulus persons (SPs) were classified as either androgynous, undifferentiated, masculine, or feminine. Male and female Ss evaluated the SPs on dimensions of likeability, adjustment, expressiveness, instrumentality, masculinity, and femininity. Results demonstrate that androgynous persons, regardless of gender, were liked best and perceived as most adjusted, whereas undifferentiated persons were liked least and perceived as least adjusted. Masculine and feminine persons, regardless of gender, were rated midway between androgynous and undifferentiated persons and generally were not evaluated differently on these dimensions. Evaluations of SPs on stereotypically gender-related dimensions revealed that androgynous persons were seen to be as highly instrumental as masculine persons and as highly expressive as feminine persons, but generally less masculine and feminine than sex-typed persons. Implications for self-fulfilling prophecies in social behavior are discussed. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The nonverbal display of psychological androgyny.

Attempted to determine how individual differences in sex-role orientation, as assessed by the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, were related to undergraduates' display of nonverbal behaviors indicative of "masculinity" and "femininity." Smiling, gazing (feminine behaviors), interrupting, and filled pausing (masculine behaviors) were coded for sex-typed males and females and androgynous males and females assigned to either an instrumental situation or an expressive situation in 36 same-sex dyads. Analyses of nonverbal behavior showed that androgynous Ss showed a blend of both masculine and feminine behaviors. The blend was the product of the addition of cross-sex behavior and deletion of some sex-consonant behavior. In contrast, sex-typed Ss showed more cross-sex behavioral avoidance and more sex-consonant behavioral cohesion. Results are discussed in terms of S. L. Bem's (1974, 1975) and J. T. Spence and R. L. Helmreich's (1977) conceptions of masculinity and femininity. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex typing and androgyny: further explorations of the expressive domain

Previous research by Bem has indicated that androgynous individuals of both sexes display "masculine" independence when under pressure to conform as well as "feminine" nurturance when interacting with a kitten. In contrast, sex-typed individuals were low in one or both of these behaviors. The two studies reported here were designed to replicate the low nurturance of the masculine male and to clarify the unexpected finding that feminine females were low in both independence and nurturance. In the first study subjects interacted with a human infant, and in the second study they listened to a lonely student. Taken together, the results of these two studies conceptually replicated the low nurturance of the masculine male and demonstrated that the low nurturance of the feminine female does not extend to her interaction with humans. Finally, evidence was presented in support of Spence, Helmreich, and Stapp's distinction between "androgynous" individuals, who are high in both masculinity and feminity, and "undifferentiated" individuals, who are low in both of these characteristics.     

Sex role orientation and resolution of Eriksonian crises during the late adolescent years.

Administered the Bem Sex-Role Inventory and the Industry Inferiority and Identity vs Identity Diffusion scales from the Inventory of Psychosocial Development (IPD) to 182 male and 222 female undergraduates. Results indicate that the androgynous Ss had the highest difference scores on the IPD scales, with masculine, feminine, and undifferentiated Ss having progressively lower mean scores. Androgynous, masculine, and feminine Ss had equivalently low scores on the scales measuring unsuccessful resolution, with the undifferentiated Ss obtaining the highest scores on these scales. It is suggested that the androgynous and sex-typed Ss view themselves as varying along a dimension of successful resolution. These groups did not vary on measures of unsuccessful resolution. The undifferentiated Ss saw themselves not only as less successful in resolving the crises but also as more unsuccessful. Further analyses revealed that the masculine component of the sex role was the more important for predicting better resolution of the 2 crises. The importance of employing multiple measures of adjustment, the importance of theory-guided research, and the consideration of the relative contributions of masculinity and femininity to adjustment are discussed. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interaction of sex role self-concept with relationship quality and relationship beliefs in married, heterosexual cohabiting, gay, and lesbian couples.

Examined the relationship between sex-role self-concept (masculine, feminine, undifferentiated, and androgynous) and relationship quality and dysfunctional relationship beliefs among 44 married (mean age 29.68 yrs), 35 heterosexual cohabiting (mean age 28.68 yrs), 50 homosexual (mean age 31.28 yrs), and 56 lesbian (mean age 31.18 yrs) couples. Ss completed questionnaires on demographic and background information, the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, a relationship beliefs inventory, and relationship quality assessments. Individual partner analyses revealed that relationship quality and relationship beliefs differed by Ss' sex-role self-concept. Androgynous and feminine Ss reported higher relationship quality than masculine and undifferentiated Ss; androgynous Ss had fewer "disagreement is destructive" beliefs than feminine Ss; and androgynous Ss had fewer "partner cannot change" beliefs than undifferentiated Ss. Couple analyses showed a relation between partners' sex-role self-concept only for the heterosexual cohabiting couples. For these couples, masculine men tended to pair with feminine or undifferentiated women, and androgynous partners tended to pair together. Relative to other couples, those in which one or both partners were androgynous or feminine reported the highest relationship quality; couples in which one or both partners were undifferentiated or masculine reported the lowest. These effects did not vary by type of couple. It is concluded that sex-role self-concept is a robust factor in appraisals of relationship quality. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Socially undesirable sex-correlated characteristics: implications for androgyny and adjustment

Since current measures of sex-role style, such as the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, assess only positive, socially desirable attributes, a set of socially undesirable but sex-typed characteristics was developed and examined in relation to the Bem categories. Data from 100 male and 100 female undergraduates show that androgynous males endorsed the fewest and undifferentiated males endorsed the most numbers of these undesirable characteristics. Feminine-typed females were least likely to use undesirable masculine self-attributes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-schemas and gender.

Examined the information processing consequences of self-schemas about gender in 2 studies (467 undergraduates). Systematic differences in cognitive performance were observed among Ss identified as masculine schematics, feminine schematics, low androgynous, and high androgynous (Bem Sex-Role Inventory). Feminine schematics remembered more feminine than masculine attributes, endorsed more feminine qualities, required shorter processing times for "me" judgments to these attributes, were more confident of their judgments, and were able to supply relatively more examples of past feminine than masculine behavior. A parallel pattern of results was found for masculine stimuli in masculine schematics. Androgynous Ss recalled as many masculine as feminine attributes and did not differentiate between masculine and feminine attributes with respect to latency or confidence. Comparison of the 2 groups of androgynous Ss shows that only low androgynous Ss should be considered aschematic with respect to gender. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Masculine and feminine traits: Their relation to suitedness for and success in training for traditionally masculine and feminine army functions.

Evidence in support of the androgyny, masculinity, and congruence models is compared in a study of 200 men and 299 women training for traditionally masculine and feminine army functions. Ss rated their chances for success in and suitedness for functions for which they were being trained, and responded to the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. At the end of training they were rated by peers and training officers. Men rated themselves more likely to succeed than did women and had higher officer and peer ratings. Suitedness self-ratings were higher for sex-typed and androgynous men and cross-sex-typed women. Androgynous men and women, sex-typed men, and cross-sex-typed women saw themselves as most likely to succeed. Officers' ratings favored the sex-typed. Men and women high in masculinity had better self- and peer ratings than did those low in masculinity. These results lend most support to the masculinity model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relation between testosterone concentration, sex role identity, and personality among females.

84 female undergraduates completed measures of masculinity and femininity derived from the California Personality Inventory, the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, and the Adjective Check List. Testosterone (T) concentration was determined from saliva samples. Results indicate that sex-role type was related to level of T concentration. Undifferentiated Ss had much higher levels of T concentration than did feminine Ss, and androgynous and masculine Ss had somewhat higher T levels than did feminine sex-typed Ss. Adjectival correlates indicated that Ss with higher T concentrations perceived themselves as self-directed, action-oriented, and resourceful; those with lower T concentrations viewed themselves as conventional, socialized individuals, possessing a caring attitude coupled with an anxious and dejected mood. (50 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of androgyny on the quality of psychotherapeutic relationships.

Tested the hypothesis that androgynous therapists would form more favorable psychotherapy relationships with their clients than masculine or feminine therapists. 52 psychology practicum dyads (therapists aged 26–40 yrs, clients aged 18–30 yrs) were examined in the context of in vivo psychotherapy sessions. The therapists and clients each completed the Bem Sex-Role Inventory—Revised, and clients also completed the Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory. Results indicate that androgynous therapists were judged to produce more favorable relationships, regardless of gender. It is suggested that this superior relationship with androgynous therapists may be attributed to their uniqueness in dealing with problem-solving and interpersonal situations and their ability to blend masculine and feminine orientations. They can be assertive, yet supportive; engage in activities both traditionally gender appropriate and non-sex-typed; demonstrate a greater array of personal behavior and emotionality; organize cognitive data in non-gender-related ways; and combine an open, naturalistic interviewing style with directiveness. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in performance on ability tests as a function of masculinity, femininity, and androgyny.

Examined with 237 undergraduates the hypothesis that differences in performance on sex-typed ability tests may similarly be attributable to sex-role differences. A battery of tests was administered, including the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, the California Psychological Inventory, and the Comrey Personality Scales, in addition to a male-superior mechanical reasoning test and a female-superior perceptual speed and accuracy test. Large sex differences were obtained. Masculine Ss of both sexes performed highest on mechanical reasoning, followed in order by androgynous, undifferentiated, and feminine Ss. No consistent sex-role differences emerged on the speed and accuracy test. As a control on general ability, the difference between standard scores for mechanical reasoning and for speed and accuracy was calculated; sex-role differences obtained here resembled those on the mechanical reasoning test. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Compensatory masculine responding as a function of sex role.

Investigated the compensatory masculinity hypothesis, i.e., that males respond to sex-role threat by exaggerating their masculinity and engaging in greater amounts of antisocial behavior. A total of 72 sex-typed and androgynous (Bem Sex Role Inventory) college males were assigned to either a masculinity threat, masculinity validation, or control treatment group. Dependent measures included an affect rating scale, California Psychological Inventory Femininity scale, and the Behavior Questionnaire. As predicted, sex-typed males responded anxiously to sex-role threat and subsequently reported exaggerated levels of masculinity and antisocial behavior. Unexpectedly, androgynous males also reported anxiety, but they responded by lowering their level of masculine endorsement. Results support the notion of masculine compensation. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The enigma of androgyny: Differential implications for males and females?

A program of studies, comprising a total population of 1,404 college students, tested the hypothesis that psychological androgyny (i.e., a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics) permits greater behavioral flexibility and consequently leads to better adjustment. A variety of methods were used to compare androgynous with sex-typed and opposite sex-typed Ss (determined by the Bem Sex-Role Inventory) along several attitudinal, personality, and behavioral dimensions. Contrary to expectation a pattern of findings replicated across measures of attitudes toward women's issues, gender identification, neurosis, introversion–extraversion, locus of control, self-esteem, problems with alcohol, creativity, political awareness, confidence in one's own ability, helplessness, and sexual maturity indicated that flexibility and adjustment were generally associated with masculinity rather than androgyny for both males and females. Feminine Ss, independent of gender, would prefer to become more masculine were that possible. These results are interpreted as suggesting an alternative to S. L. Bem's theory of androgyny. Additional analyses indicated few differences between the additive and the original definitions of androgyny. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex typing and androgyny in dyadic interaction: Individual differences in responsiveness to physical attractiveness.

In an expansion of the "behavioral confirmation" paradigm developed by M. Snyder et al (see record 1979-26014-001), 12 sex-typed and 12 androgynous (Bem Sex-Role Inventory) undergraduates of each sex engaged in getting-acquainted telephone conversations with allegedly attractive and unattractive members of their own and the opposite sex. Although females were more socially responsive than males, the sexes neither differed in their responsiveness to physical attractiveness nor in their responsiveness to cross-sex and same-sex interaction. As hypothesized, sex-typed individuals were rated by blind judges as being significantly more responsive toward allegedly attractive than unattractive partners. In contrast, androgynous men did not differentiate on the basis of physical attractiveness, and androgynous women actually led allegedly unattractive targets to be rated as more socially attractive than allegedly attractive targets, thereby disconfirming the physical attractiveness stereotype. Because cultural definitions of physical attractiveness are different for men and women, results are discussed in the context of recent evidence that sex-typed individuals have a particular readiness to encode and organize information in terms of gender. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex role identity, peer evaluation of competition, and the responses of women and men in a competitive situation.

A 2 (male vs female)?×?2 (peer approval vs disapproval of competition)?×?4 (sex-role identity: masculine, feminine, androgynous, undifferentiated) design was used with 78 female and 67 male students who were randomly assigned to approval/disapproval conditions. Sex-role identity was measured using the Personal Attributes Questionnaire. Results reveal effects of sex-role identity and interactions of sex and peer evaluation of competition on performance and related variables. Masculine and androgynous groups had higher expectancies for performance than feminine groups, better objective performance, and greater perceived success than feminine or undifferentiated Ss of either sex. Men and women in the masculine and androgynous groups did not differ from each other in performance, affect, or cognitions. The interactions of sex and peer evaluation of competition revealed that women responded more positively on all measures to approval than disapproval, whereas men's responses were largely unaffected. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)