Effects of ‘energy’ drinks on mood and mental performance: critical methodology

Beneficial effects for mood and cognitive performance are believed to influence food and drink choice. The purpose of the present study was to demonstrate a sensitive methodology for providing objective evidence of such effects. A mildly fatiguing repetitive task formed the context for assessing the potential restorative effects of caffeine-containing ‘energy’ drinks. The methodology used was designed to account for a range of theorised variations in the data, many of which are often overlooked in current research. Significant effects of the energy drinks on task performance and self-rated mood were found. These effects can be summarised with the terms ‘alerting’, ‘revitalising’, ‘awakening’ and providing mental energy, and appear to be mainly caffeine related.     

Influence of brand information on consumers’ expectations and liking of powdered drinks in central location tests

The aim of the present work was to study the influence of brand on consumers’ expectations and liking of orange-flavoured powdered drinks. Ten samples of orange-flavoured powdered drinks were evaluated by 108 consumers who scored their expected liking (looking at the pack only) and the overall liking under blind and informed-testing conditions (tasting the products). Consumers were also asked to answer a check-all-that-apply question with eight statements related to some products’ characteristics and usage occasions. Results showed that brand and package information had a large impact on consumers’ liking scores only for well-recognized brands. Hierarchical multiple factor analysis performed on liking scores for the three evaluation conditions showed that informed liking scores were closer to expected liking scores than to blind liking scores, suggesting that brand information was more important than hedonic reaction to the sensory characteristics in determining consumers’ liking scores for the samples on the informed condition.     

How to position ‘mildly sustainable’ products: The joint impact of assortment display and price setting

To tempt consumers towards more sustainable food choices, ‘intermediately’ sustainable products (i.e., in between conventional and organic) have been introduced. This poses the managerial question how to best position this range of products. In an experiment with intermediately sustainable meat products, we show that the choice share of these intermediate products is high when price level and physical display signal a consistent positioning of these products. This implies that the effect of layout depends on the price level at which intermediately sustainable products are offered. When these products are offered at intermediate prices, displaying them in a separate section will increase choice (i.e., unique feature positioning). Yet, when intermediately sustainable products are offered at low prices, a mixed display in which intermediately sustainable and conventional products are dispersed will be more effective in increasing choice for the intermediately sustainable options (i.e., comparative positioning). These results show the importance of assortment display in affecting the sales potential of products, and how the most optimal display in-store depends on price level.     

Dark vs. light drinks: The influence of visual appearance on the consumer’s experience of beer

We report evidence concerning how the visual appearance of a drink (dark vs. light pale/amber beer) can influence the consumer’s tasting experience. Two experiments were designed to study the effect of visual appearance on people’s hedonic and sensory judgments of beer. Importantly, the beers were indistinguishable in terms of their flavor when tasted in the absence of visual cues.Participants rated the same beer (pale or dark, depending in which group they were assigned) under blind conditions as having more body than when tasted under sighted condition (regardless of whether it was pale or dark; see Experiment 1).When the participants evaluated the expectations and tasting experience of the two different beers under sighted conditions (pale vs. dark), after tasting, those who preferred pale beers, rated the darker beer as tasting sweeter than those who usually prefer other types of beers, such as dark ones (see Experiment 2). Prior tasting, when asked which beer they thought was the most expensive, the majority of the participants chose the darker beer. Furthermore, after tasting both beers, participants reported being willing to pay up to 6% more on average for the darker beer as compared to the pale one.     

“I’m eating healthy now”: The relationship between perceived behavior change and diet

Public health campaigns often encourage people to increase the consumption of vegetables and fruits while limiting sugar, fat, and salt intake. Furthermore, recent approaches increasingly suggest accumulating small behavioral shifts to change eating behavior. However, when individuals actually do notice a positive change in their diet behavior has rarely been studied to date. Accordingly, the present research examined the relationship between felt and actual changes in healthy food intake. Food choice was assessed in two longitudinal studies (Study 1: N = 743; Study 2: N = 489) using a validated food frequency questionnaire. For assessing perceived healthy eating shifts, participants stated at a second measurement-point whether they had changed their eating patterns in the previous six months. Accordingly, participants were classified into four ‘Perceived Change’ groups: Changers, Attempters, Non-Attempters, and Healthy Eaters. In Study 1, participants who claimed they had made a healthy shift in their eating behavior (Changers) shifted from a regular to an optimal dietary pattern. Furthermore, Changers reduced their intake of five food categories: chocolate, cakes/pastries/biscuits, sausages/ham, meat, and eggs. No systematic changes were observed in the remaining groups. These results were replicated in Study 2. Participants perceived a change in their diet only if they had achieved a healthy shift in their dietary pattern. Moreover, Changers in both studies exhibited a significant decrease in their BMI. Overall, the group of Changers improved their diet, potentially reducing their risk for non-communicable diseases. Implications of these findings for public health campaigns are discussed.     

‘Comfort and Freedom’: The Duke of Windsor’s Wardrobe

Abstract

Clothing belonging to the late Duke of Windsor (1894–1972), which remained in his Paris home until it was dispersed in 1998, provides an insight into both his taste and character. As the young and popular Prince of Wales in the 1920s, he courted notions of modernity, celebrity and informality, rejecting the stiff conventions of his father’s dress and court. His innovative sense of style was emulated on both sides of the Atlantic. Throughout his life he remained loyal to the tailors and haberdashers who helped to craft his image and provide the comfort and freedom he craved in his clothes. This paper considers how some of the surviving garments in his wardrobe can help to define the man who was Prince of Wales, King Edward VIII and Duke of Windsor.     

Assessment of strobilurin fungicides’ content in soya-based drinks by liquid micro-extraction and liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry

Seven strobilurin fungicides were pre-concentrated from soya-based drinks using dispersive liquid–liquid micro-extraction (DLLME) with a prior protein precipitation step in acid medium. The enriched phase was analysed by liquid chromatography (LC) with dual detection, using diode array detection (DAD) and electrospray-ion trap tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-IT-MS/MS). After selecting 1-undecanol and methanol as the extractant and disperser solvents, respectively, for DLLME, the Taguchi experimental method, an orthogonal array design, was applied to select the optimal solvent volumes and salt concentration in the aqueous phase. The matrix effect was evaluated and quantification was carried out using external aqueous calibration for DAD and matrix-matched calibration method for MS/MS. Detection limits in the 4–130 and 0.8–4.5 ng g^?1 ranges were obtained for DAD and MS/MS, respectively. The DLLME-LC-DAD-MS method was applied to the analysis of 10 different samples, none of which was found to contain residues of the studied fungicides.     

The whole beast: Consumers’ perceptions of and willingness-to-eat animal by-products

Satisfying the global demand for proteins and avoiding food waste are global challenges. Promoting the consumption of animal by-products might contribute to the solution. The goal of our study was to investigate the role that different factors play for consumers’ willingness to engage with animal by-products. For this, an online survey and experiment with consumers was conducted (N = 260). While food disgust sensitivity works as a barrier, social norms and culinary-based drivers increase people’s willingness to engage with animal by-products. To expand consumer interest, measures could focus on increasing familiarity and reducing negative expectations regarding the sensory qualities of the product.     

The roles of schema incongruity and expertise in consumers’ wine judgment

Broadening the present understanding of how expertise moderates the schema-incongruity effect (i.e., the notion that a product moderately incongruent with the schema evoked for it in memory is associated with a comparatively positive product evaluation), this study argues that people with higher, not lower, degrees of expertise experience incongruity and prefer moderately incongruent products over congruent ones. Because people with low expertise in complex product categories lack a developed schema against which to assess encountered products, they will be insensitive to incongruity. People with high expertise, on the other hand, typically have developed schemata and can therefore perceive incongruity and respond accordingly.Consumers with different levels of wine expertise participated in a study in which they were given congruent or incongruent information, as well as different levels of information elaboration, about a wine prior to tasting and evaluating it. The results of this study support the above argument: Expertise moderates the incongruity effect such that it is prevalent only for experts, and schema-level processing moderates expertise’s moderating effect on the incongruity effect.     

4-Ethylphenol and 4-ethylguaiacol contents in bottled wines from the German ‘Württemberg’ region

The 4-ethylphenol (4-EP), 4-ethylguaiacol (4-EG), and 4-ethylcatechol (4-EC) concentrations were determined in 1.312 bottled wine samples from the German ‘Württemberg’ region by means of HPLC coupled with fluorescence detection. 4-EC was not detected in quantifiable concentrations in any of the samples analysed. 6.4% of the wines showed 4-EP and 4-EG concentrations over the detection limit of 16 μg/L for 4-EP and 7 μg/L for 4-EG. 1.8% of all wines were over the odour threshold. For white wines it was shown that 4-EG is the only tainting compound and that 0.3% of the wines contain 4-EG above the sensory threshold. The 4-EP and 4-EG contents averaged 17.7 and 4.7 μg/L in red wine and 2.2 and 1.0 μg/L in white wine, respectively. Based on the analytical results a statistical evaluation was performed to assess the impact of various parameters, such as wine type, storage, residual sugar content, etc., which are known to influence ethylphenol concentration. A significant difference between white wine and wine made from red grape varieties was observed. Wine stored for a long time period in wooden casks showed especially high ethylphenol content. Only a slight tendency was observed regarding the residual sugar, alcohol, total acidity and SO₂ content. Based on our data, we cannot confirm the results published by some authors that varieties show significant differences with regard to their ethylphenol ratios.     

The influence of health claims and nutritional composition on consumers’ yoghurt preferences

The use of health claims on foods with a poor nutritional composition could pose a risk of misleading some groups of consumers in their food choices. This study aimed to explore the influence of the use of claims on consumers’ preferences for yoghurts with a different nutritional composition and the influence of more and less familiar claims on food choices. The study was conducted on 371 consumers using conjoint methodology and further cluster analysis. Fruit yoghurt was used as a base product. We investigated the impact of the following product attributes on consumers’ preferences: presence/absence of a probiotic and fat metabolism claim; sugar content; and fat content. The results suggest that, while consumers generally consider the nutritional composition of yoghurt to be more important than the tested claims, some groups of consumers are more sensitive to the use of health-related statements. We observed the consumers’ generally positive preference for a familiar probiotic claim, and their negative preference for a non-familiar fat metabolism claim. Overall, these results indicate that some groups of consumers are more sensitive to the use of health-related communications and are therefore more exposed to the risk of being misled if the composition of the yoghurt they buy is in fact less favourable. It would be beneficial if nutrient profiles were introduced to limit the use of claims on foods.     

Moving in the right direction? The role of price subsidies in fertilizer use and maize productivity in Ghana

Despite major maize programs in the last two decades and costly investments in a price subsidy program in Ghana, maize productivity remains very low. Utilizing cross-sectional data on 645 maize plots in Ghana, this paper provides empirical evidence on the responsiveness of maize yield to fertilizer application, profitability of fertilizer use, and how the economics of fertilizer use have changed with the subsidy program. There was a statistically significant maize yield response to increased fertilizer application (i.e. 1-kg of nitrogen leads to a yield increase of 22–26 kg per hectare), higher than those estimated in other countries in Africa. Value-cost ratio shows that maize production with fertilizer is profitable both at market and subsidized prices in different locations and with different farming practices, even after incorporating risk into the estimation and analysis. However, despite subsidized prices and profitable fertilizer use, the actual application rate (at 44 kg/ha of nitrogen on average) is much lower than research institute’s and government recommendation and far off the computed economically “optimal” levels (at 225 kg/ha of nitrogen; where the fertilizer price intersects the value of marginal physical product derived from the yield response model). Results suggest that fertilizer prices do not seem to be the binding constraint in greater fertilizer application and productivity increases in maize; other factors appear to be major bottlenecks to greater fertilizer application and productivity increases including accessibility to modern varieties, mechanization, and hired labor. This result shows the limits to fertilizer subsidy as the focus strategy and suggests a more integrated and holistic approach to encourage greater fertilizer application, productivity and income among maize farmers in Ghana.     

Why are discounted prices presented with full prices? The role of external price information on consumers’ likelihood to purchase

Apart from being a cost, prices inform consumers on the quality of goods. To retain informative power, discounted prices are often presented together with their original value as an External Reference Price (ERP). Observing the impact of the ERP on consumer preferences using two contingent valuation surveys to wine consumers, the paper observes that the presence of both prices and ERPs guide consumer choices. In particular, ERPs shift the attention of consumers towards expensive products and high discounts, by providing information on quality and allowing for time-efficient decisions. Results show that ERPs: (a) have a positive impact on preferences, but less (in absolute value) than prices; (b) stimulate the choice of items with high price and large discounts; (c) make consumers revise their choices. The presence of an ERP can, in certain conditions, lead to a positive response to high prices.     

The congruence effect of food shape and name typeface on consumers’ food preferences

Both food image and name are important in advertising and packaging, which means that identifying their effects on consumer preferences is of both conceptual and managerial importance. However, although an increasing body of research currently focuses on the impact of food attributes on consumers, whether the sensory correspondences between food shape and name typeface affect consumer reactions is an under-researched topic. This paper thus comprises five studies to demonstrate the congruence effect between food shape and name typeface, whereby consumers prefer foods with a round (angular) shape that are labeled with a round (angular) name typeface. This shape–typeface congruence effect is driven by the psychological mechanism of processing fluency, which derives from the sensory correspondences between food shape and name typeface. Finally, this study identifies an important boundary condition of the congruence effect, confirming it affects only the consumer response to hedonic and not utilitarian goods. Using multiple foods and typefaces, the findings provide significant implications for processing fluency, sensory correspondences, and food marketing.     

The combined effect of front-of-pack nutrition labels and health claims on consumers’ evaluation of food products

The majority of studies examining the effect of nutrition information on food packets (such as the nutrition information panel (NIP), front-of-pack labels (FoPLs) and health claims) have examined each in isolation, even though they often occur together. This study investigated the relationship between FoPLs and health claims since (i) they both appear on the front of packs and typically receive more attention from consumers than the NIP, (ii) they can convey contradictory messages (i.e., health claims provide information on nutrients that are beneficial to health while FoPLs provide information on nutrients associated with increased health risks) and (iii) there is currently scant research on how consumers trade off between these two sources of information. Ten focus groups (n = 85) explored adults’ and children’s reactions when presented with both a FoPL (the Daily Intake Guide, Multiple Traffic Lights, or the Health Star Rating) and a health claim (nutrient content, general-level-, or high-level). A particular focus was participants’ processing of discrepant information. Participants reported that health claims were more likely to be considered during product evaluations if they were perceived to be trustworthy, relevant and informative. Trust and ease of interpretation were most important for FoPLs, which were more likely than health claims to meet criteria and be considered during product evaluation (especially the Health Star Rating and Multiple Traffic Lights). Results indicate that consumers generally find FoPLs more useful than health claims.     

Effect of consumers’ origin on perceived sensory quality,liking and liking drivers: A cross-cultural study on European cheeses

We aim at studying consumers’ Perceived Sensory Quality (PSQ) concept. We manipulated a priori both familiarity (contrast local vs. foreign cheeses) and quality level (contrast PDO or traditional cheeses vs. their non-PDO and/or industrial counterpart). The study was run in four European countries. Thus, eight cheeses (one PDO or traditional cheese and one non-PDO cheese from each of the four European countries) were assessed by a total of 438 consumers (from 100 to 120 consumers from each region) in terms of PSQ and liking. The cheeses were also described by a trained panel.PSQ depended on both consumers’ and cheeses’ origin. The main finding is that in the three countries with PDO culture, consumers identified domestic PDO cheese as having a significantly higher PSQ than its non-PDO counterpart, whereas they were not able to differentiate PDO and non-PDO cheeses from other countries. Overall, sensory drivers of PSQ were similar across consumers of different origin but, the relationship between PSQ and liking is higher for non-local cheeses than for local cheeses. Overall, the results support the idea that PSQ is related to liking but is also modulated by product familiarity.     

Are consumer profiling techniques equivalent for some product categories? The case of orange‐flavoured powdered drinks

Taking into account consumers’ perception in new product development has been regarded as a key strategy to developing more successful food products. In this context, consumer profiling techniques have increased their popularity in the last decade. The aim of the present work was to compare four consumer profiling techniques (sorting, projective mapping, intensity scales and check‐all‐that‐apply questions) in orange‐flavoured powdered juice drinks. A consumer study was carried out with 200 regular consumers of the category, which were divided into four groups. Each group used a different methodology to evaluate seven commercial powdered drinks. After completing the task consumers were asked to rate its difficulty on a nine‐point hedonic scale. Results showed that the four evaluated methodologies were able to identify differences in consumers’ perception of the sensory characteristics of the drinks, providing similar information. However, the application of CATA questions and intensity scales was regarded as easier for consumers. Advantages and disadvantages of the evaluated methodologies are discussed.