Nuclear production of hydrogen development in the Federal Republic of Germany

For a long time hydrogen has been used in industry and today is mainly produced from hydrocarbons. Hydrogen is used in the gas supply, chemical industry, oil industry and in the metallurgical industry. Hydrogen obtained from nuclear energy can contribute to the future energy supply as well as take over functions which today are filled by natural gas and mineral oil.Based on these properties, and under the assumption of economical production, hydrogen can attain a wide spectrum of uses, especially as an energy carrier for heat supply in industry, and for household and private consumption; as a raw material for the chemical industry, for the synthesis of hydrocarbons and for the production of ammonia; as hydrogen in the oil industry and for coal reprocessing; as a reducing agent in the metallurgical industry (especially in the steel industry); and as a fuel for transportation (mainly for aircraft). The actual methods for production of hydrogen and the methods for the refinement of coal make linking with nuclear energy possible by the allocation of the process energies necessary for the process of conversion. These are mainly process steam and process heat.A further possibility for the production of hydrogen is the thermochemical process. In this process the feeds are water and nuclear energy, the products are hydrogen and oxygen. The nuclear energy is used in the form of high-temperature heat, for example from high-temperature reactors. The process is comprised of a series of chemical reactions, which represent in total the reaction of water splitting.     

The energy cost of goods and services in the Federal Republic of Germany

Recent studies of energy costs in national economies have tended to concentrate on the UK and the US. This study applies input-output analysis to the economy of the Federal Republic of Germany. It indicates that foreign trade in non-energy products has a great impact on the national energy balance with energy contained in exports being larger than imports by about 25%. It is hoped that the general results should be useful in comparing energy costs in various economies although explicit comparisons between countries of energy costs per final demand are complicated by the fact that currency exchange rates do not correspond to the rates which should be used when making energy comparisons.     

Energy scenarios for Malta

Many island power systems are powered by diesel generators or long underwater cables, which result in greater operating costs or losses than stand-alone systems. It is therefore desirable to integrate renewable energy (RE) sources into these mini grids.     

Net employment effects of an extension of renewable-energy systems in the Federal Republic of Germany

Renewable-energy potential exists in the Federal Republic of Germany to a great extent, but it is barely used as yet. A change in the power-supply structure seems to be too risky with regard to finance and the sensitive labour market. Nevertheless, an extension of renewable energy systems in the German state North-Rhine Westphalia would lead to improved employment prospects.     

Energy scenarios for New Zealand

Three scenarios for New Zealand's energy future have been researched. Each scenario has a theme which is used as a basis for calculation of energy demand in all sectors. The energy supply is worked out using a strategy which is also based on the theme. The themes tend to be an exaggeration of what is seen of three major thought streams present in our society today and are as follows:Continuation. Continuation of policies and trends which apply today; emphasis on economic growth measured in terms of per capital productivity; continued exploitation of the country's potential for agricultural and industrial development.Low New Zealand Pollution. Postulation of a society which sets out to minimise site-specific pollution especially from industry, power production, while still have comparatively high economic growth.Limited Growth. Economic growth rate reduced to zero by 2000; move to renewable sources for energy; concern for environmental degradation.The scenarios also provide a body of information on energy issues and discuss options which are significantly different from those being followed today. Of particular interest are the issues of liquid fuels, fossil fuels, nuclear energy and alternative technologies, as well as an indication of the range of energy demand under the three scenario themes.     

Energy in the Federal German Republic: The electric power industry: investment requirements and their financing

After an era of relatively stable electricity prices, the electric power industry in the Federal Republic of Germany has been forced to raise its prices at increasingly shorter intervals since the beginning of the seventies. The reasons given for this are continuing cost increases; the need to remain profitable; and the need to finance essential investment. Drs Schmitt and Mönig assess the course of investment in this branch of industry up to the mid-eighties in the light of the growing importance of capital costs to the electric power sector, and discuss the problems of meeting the resultant need for finance.     

Energy futures for oil-importing developing countries

A number of energy proposals for oil-importing developing countries (OIDCs) are presented in outline, pointing out strengths and weaknesses. Taking the analysis of the proposals further, the paper then discusses the broader political and economic factors that shape the nature of demand. In essence, it shows that energy proposals formulated on the basis of short-term economic considerations while ignoring how demand is moulded by political and economic structures, unnecessarily narrow the energy options. In conclusion, some criteria for an equitable energy policy are presented.     

Energy and environment : Nordic energy scenarios for 2010 and 2030

The concept of a sustainable energy sector has received wide attention since the publication of the Brundtland Report in 1987. This paper analyses the possibilities of establishing by 2010 and 2030 an energy system in the Nordic countries which prevents the critical loads of NO_x and SO₂ respectively on the most vulnerable Nordic ecological systems being exceeded. In addition, the present concentration of CO₂ in the atmosphere should not be significantly exceeded within a time horizon to around 2050. Different scenarios have been investigated in order to analyse the scope for attaining such a sustainable energy development within the limits of existing technologies and known potentials of renewable energy sources. Data on the technologies are available in a special catalogue.     

The Spatial Distribution of the Average Annual Mean Wind Speed in 10 Meters Height Above Ground of the Federal Republic of Germany as a Contribution to the Utilization of Wind Energy

On the basis of data sets of the period 1971 to 1980 a map of the average annual mean wind speed in 10 m height above ground has been prepared for the area of the Federal Republic of Germany. In connection with a nomogram this map provides a first genera] view of the areas suitable for the utilization of small wind energy converters.     

Leapfrog to the future: Energy scenarios and strategies for Suriname to 2050

This paper formulates energy strategies for Suriname. A conceptual model, identifying relationships in the energy sector, is conceived. One of the striking characteristics is that various relationships inhibit significant uncertainty; our contemporary age is characterized by more complex becoming relations, decreasing predictability and increasing chaos. Simple extrapolation of past events is therefore futile, since deviations from anticipated outcomes have significant impacts.     

Energy sector of the Russian Far East: Current status and scenarios for the future

This article describes the Russian Far East's energy sector, stressing its limited energy exports, and use of separate electricity and heating grids to geographically dispersed population centers with various supply patterns distributed across a vast territory. One key strategic trend has been to strengthen the potential of the region as an energy supplier for the countries of Northeast Asia. This underlies the framework used to develop three energy scenarios of the Russian Far East's energy future through 2030: Reference, National Alternative and Regional Alternative. While the Regional Alternative case has much greater total costs for implementation, yields almost the same amount of emissions as the BAU case, and requires greater governmental efforts to bring it to reality, it looks preferable for the RFE as a whole because it has a well-balanced primary energy consumption mix, lower energy and ecology/GDP indices, and a lower fraction of energy imports; offers greater diversity of energy supply; and provides better local energy service. The authors would like to thank Boris Saneev, Alexander Sokolov, Alexander Izhbuldin from the Institute of Energy Systems, Irkutsk; Julia Savelieva from Far Eastern Coal Research; and Alla Filatova from Far Eastern Power Engineering Institute for providing technical information, and expertise.     

A long term data accumulation programme using six differently located solar energy heating installations for the supply of warm water in the Federal Republic of Germany

Six identical solar energy systems for the supply of warm water were operated in different locations in the Federal Republic of Germany between 1976 and 1979. With a collector area of 5.55 m² and a storage unit of 3801 volume, 50 or 75–80 per cent of conventional energy demand for domestic water preparation can be saved in the annual balance or during the summer months, respectively, by used solar energy. The correlation analysis of the measured global radiation and net energy gain confirms the long term operational stability of these installations.     

Emissions reduction scenarios in the Argentinean Energy Sector

In this paper the LEAP, TIAM-ECN, and GCAM models were applied to evaluate the impact of a variety of climate change control policies (including carbon pricing and emission constraints relative to a base year) on primary energy consumption, final energy consumption, electricity sector development, and CO₂ emission savings of the energy sector in Argentina over the 2010–2050 period. The LEAP model results indicate that if Argentina fully implements the most feasible mitigation measures currently under consideration by official bodies and key academic institutions on energy supply and demand, such as the ProBiomass program, a cumulative incremental economic cost of 22.8 billion US$(2005) to 2050 is expected, resulting in a 16% reduction in GHG emissions compared to a business-as-usual scenario. These measures also bring economic co-benefits, such as a reduction of energy imports improving the balance of trade. A Low CO₂ price scenario in LEAP results in the replacement of coal by nuclear and wind energy in electricity expansion. A High CO₂ price leverages additional investments in hydropower. By way of cross-model comparison with the TIAM-ECN and GCAM global integrated assessment models, significant variation in projected emissions reductions in the carbon price scenarios was observed, which illustrates the inherent uncertainties associated with such long-term projections. These models predict approximately 37% and 94% reductions under the High CO₂ price scenario, respectively. By comparison, the LEAP model, using an approach based on the assessment of a limited set of mitigation options, predicts an 11.3% reduction. The main reasons for this difference include varying assumptions about technology cost and availability, CO₂ storage capacity, and the ability to import bioenergy. An emission cap scenario (2050 emissions 20% lower than 2010 emissions) is feasible by including such measures as CCS and Bio CCS, but at a significant cost. In terms of technology pathways, the models agree that fossil fuels, in particular natural gas, will remain an important part of the electricity mix in the core baseline scenario. According to the models there is agreement that the introduction of a carbon price will lead to a decline in absolute and relative shares of aggregate fossil fuel generation. However, predictions vary as to the extent to which coal, nuclear and renewable energy play a role.     

Forecasts,scenarios, visions,backcasts and roadmaps to the hydrogen economy: A review of the hydrogen futures literature

Scenarios, roadmaps and similar foresight methods are used to cope with uncertainty in areas with long planning horizons, such as energy policy, and research into the future of hydrogen energy is no exception. Such studies can play an important role in the development of shared visions of the future: creating powerful expectations of the potential of emerging technologies and mobilising resources necessary for their realisation.     

Promotion of Wind Energy in Germany

This paper concentrates on the most important findings and the lessons learned from German experience in the field of wind energy integration. It reflects the work of the governmental experts who were auditing the 2008-revision of the Renewable Energy Sources Act （EEG 2008） in the EEG-Report 2011 and the actual political debate in Germany in 2013. The EEG report 2011 makes it clear that a feed-in-tariff-mechanism lowers entry barriers and open the market for new competitors but, also, that incentives without a favorable legal framework fail to fulfill the purpose.     

Energy demand and carbon emissions under different development scenarios for Shanghai,China

In this paper, Shanghai's CO₂ emissions from 1995 to 2006 were estimated following the IPCC guidelines. The energy demand and CO₂ emissions were also projected until 2020, and the CO₂ mitigation potential of the planned government policies and measures that are not yet implemented but will be enacted or adopted by the end of 2020 in Shanghai were estimated. The results show that Shanghai's total CO₂ emissions in 2006 were 184 million tons of CO₂. During 1995–2006, the annual growth rate of CO₂ emissions in Shanghai was 6.22%. Under a business-as-usual (BAU) scenario, total energy demand in Shanghai will rise to 300 million tons of coal equivalent in 2020, which is 3.91 times that of 2005. Total CO₂ emissions in 2010 and 2020 will reach 290 and 630 million tons, respectively, under the BAU scenario. Under a basic-policy (BP) scenario, total energy demand in Shanghai will be 160 million tons of coal equivalent in 2020, which is 2.06 times that of 2005. Total CO₂ emissions in 2010 and 2020 in Shanghai will be 210 and 330 million tons, respectively, 28% and 48% lower than those of the business-as-usual scenario. The results show that the currently planned energy conservation policies for the future, represented by the basic-policy scenario, have a large CO₂ mitigation potential for Shanghai.     

Energy policy and the energy economy in FR Germany : An overview

The article reports on the current status of West German energy policy, and in a sense it is a case study of a predominantly, though not purely, market-oriented approach. It presents some interesting facts and figures on the West German energy economy, and although written in an introductory fashion, leads the reader into the heart of current energy policy issues. The short retrospective demonstrates the remarkable success of the market-oriented approach to energy policy. The main current problems are the implementation of stricter environmental standards and the structural adjustments of the domestic coal and refining industries. A short discussion on future perspectives shows that total primary energy demand up to the end of the century is likely to remain stagnant, while further marked progress in energy efficiency can be expected.     

Market perspectives of stationary fuel cells in a sustainable energy supply system—long-term scenarios for Germany

Because of high efficiency, low environmental impacts and a potential role in transforming our energy system into a hydrogen economy, fuel cells are often considered as a key technology for a sustainable energy supply. However, the future framing conditions under which stationary fuel cells have to prove their technical and economic competitiveness are most likely characterised by a reduced demand for space heating, and a growing contribution of renewable energy sources to heat and electricity supply, which both directly limit the potential for combined heat and power generation, and thus also for fuel cells. Taking Germany as a case study, this paper explores the market potential of stationary fuel cells under the structural changes of the energy demand and supply system required to achieve a sustainable energy supply. Results indicate that among the scenarios analysed it is in particular a strategy oriented towards ambitious CO₂-reduction targets, which due to its changes in the supply structure is in a position to mobilise a market potential that might be large enough for a successful fuel cell commercialisation. However, under the conditions of a business-as-usual trajectory the sales targets of fuel cell manufacturers cannot be met.