Interrelations of cooling rate,microstructure, and mechanical properties in four HSLA steels

The present study was carried out on four steels containing 0.1 pct C-1.5 pct Mn-0.003 pct B* in common, with additions of 1 pct Cr, 0.5 pct Mo, 0.25 pct Mo + 1 pct Cr, 0.2 pct Ti + 1 pct Cr. They were designated, accordingly, as Cr, Mo, Mo-Cr, and Cr-Ti steels. All the steels exhibited a complete lath martensite microstructure with thin interlaths of retained austenite (≈0.05 pct) in the quenched condition. The normalized microstructures, granular bainite, contained massive areas of ferrite and granules of bainite laths. Both microconstituents contained a fine dispersion of cementite particles (size ≈50 Å) together with high dislocation densities. A mechanism explaining their for-mation has been given. The Cr steel, due to its low hardenability, showed in addition polygonal ferrite in the neighborhood of the so-called M-A constituent (twinned martensite and/or austenite). The annealed microstructure (using a cooling rate of 0.033 °C s^?1) of the Cr steel consisted of coarse ferrite-pearlite. Addition of 0.2 pct Ti to the Cr steel markedly refined the structure, whereas an addition of 0.25 pct Mo altered the microstructure to ferrite-lower bainite. In the 0.5 pct Mo steel, polygonal ferrite was found to be completely missing. The mechanical properties of the four steels after quenching, normalizing, and annealing were investigatedvia hardness and tensile test mea-surements. An empirical equation, relating the ultimate tensile strength to the steel composition, for steels that had granular bainite microstructures in the normalized condition, was proposed. The fracture surfaces exhibited cleavage and variable-size dimples depending on the microstructure and steel composition.     

Tensile stress-strain analysis of cold worked metals and steels and dual-phase steels

A study has been made of the applicability of the differential Crussard-Jaoul (C-J) analysis that assumes the Ludwik power relation, the modified C-J analysis based on the Swift formula, and the Hollomon analysis to uniaxially prestrained metals and steels and high strength, formable, dual-phase steels. The pure aluminum and copper metals and a series of plain carbon steels with carbon ranging from 0.10 to 1.05 pct were uniaxially prestrained by a given amount of strain under ambient temperature. A plain carbon steel with carbon of 0.10 pct was utilized in manufacturing the dual-phase steels. An empirical analysis exhibited the limited applicability of the C-J analysis for the interpretation of the stress-strain relationship of uniaxially prestrained metals and steels. The C-J analysis was also less sensitive to changes in the deformation behavior of the dual-phase steels in which the ferrite matrix and the shape and distribution of the second phase martensite were altered by three heat treatments. The modified C-J analysis was most suitable for describing work-hardening of uniaxially prestrained metals and steels. This analysis revealed that the dual-phase steels deformed in two stages. The first stage was associated with deformation of the ferrite matrix, and the second stage was associated with uniform straining of ferrite and martensite. The more generally used Hollomon curves deviated from linearity over all the uniform strain range regardless of the uniaxially prestrained metals and steels and dual-phase steels. Thus, the Hollomon parameters could not be assigned to an entire curve.     

Microstructures and Mechanical Properties of a New As-Hot-Rolled High-Strength DP Steel Subjected to Different Cooling Schedules

Controlled rolling followed by accelerated cooling was carried out in-house to study the microstructure and mechanical properties of a low carbon dual-phase steel. The objective of the study described here was to explore the effect of cooling schedule, such as air cooling temperature and coiling temperature, on the final microstructure and mechanical properties of dual-phase steels. Furthermore, the precipitation behavior and yield ratio are discussed. The study demonstrates that it is possible to obtain tensile strength and elongation of 780 MPa and 22 pct, respectively, at the two cooling schedules investigated. The microstructure consists of 90 pct ferrite and 10 pct martensite when subjected to moderate air cooling and low temperature coiling, such that the yield ratio is a low 0.69. The microstructure consists of 75 pct ferrite and 25 pct granular bainite with a high yield ratio of 0.84 when the steel is directly cooled to the coiling temperature. Compared to the conventional dual-phase steels, the high yield strength is attributed to precipitation hardening induced by nanoscale TiC particles and solid solution strengthening by high Si content. The interphase precipitates form at a suitable ledge mobility, and the row spacing changes with the rate of ferrite transformation. There are different orientations of the rows in the same grain because of the different growth directions of the ferrite grain boundaries, and the interface of the two colonies is devoid of precipitates because of the competitive mechanisms of the two orientations.     

Effect of Mn Addition on Microstructural Modification and Cracking Behavior of Ferritic Light-Weight Steels

In the present study, effects of Mn addition on cracking phenomenon occurring during cold rolling of ferritic light-weight steels were clarified in relation to microstructural modification involving κ-carbide, austenite, and martensite. Four steels were fabricated by varying Mn contents of 3 to 12 wt pct, and edge areas of steel sheets containing 6 to 9 wt pct Mn were cracked during the cold rolling. The steels were basically composed of ferrite and austenite in a band shape, but a considerable amount of κ-carbide or martensite existed in the steels containing 3 to 6 wt pct Mn. Microstructural observation of the deformed region of fractured tensile specimens revealed that cracks which were initiated at ferrite/martensite interfacial κ-carbides readily propagated along ferrite/martensite interfaces or into martensite areas in the steel containing 6 wt pct Mn, thereby leading to the center or edge cracking during the cold rolling. In the steel containing 9 wt pct Mn, edge cracks were found in the final stage of cold rolling because of the formation of martensite by the strain-induced austenite to martensite transformation, whereas they were hardly formed in the steel containing 12 wt pct Mn. To prevent or minimize the cracking, it was recommended that the formation of martensite during the cooling from the hot rolling temperature or during the cold rolling should be suppressed, which could be achieved by the enhancement of thermal or mechanical stability of austenite with decreasing austenite grain size or increasing contents of austenite stabilizers.     

Effect of Microstructure on Hydrogen Induced Cracking Behavior of a High Deformability Pipeline Steel

The hydrogen induced cracking(HIC) behavior of a high deformability pipeline steel was investigated with three different dual-phase microstructures,ferrite and bainite(F+B),ferrite and martensite/austenite islands(F+M/A) and ferrite and martensite(F+M),respectively.The HIC test was conducted in hydrogen sulfide(H2S)-saturated solution.The results showed that the steels with F+B and F+M/A dual-phase microstructures had both higher deformability and better HIC resistance,whereas the harder martensite phase in F+M microstructure was responsible for the worst HIC resistance.The band-like hard phase in dual-phase microstructure was believed to lead to increasing susceptibility to HIC.     

A Novel Ni-Containing Powder Metallurgy Steel with Ultrahigh Impact,Fatigue, and Tensile Properties

The impact toughness of powder metallurgy (PM) steel is typically inferior, and it is further impaired when the microstructure is strengthened. To formulate a versatile PM steel with superior impact, fatigue, and tensile properties, the influences of various microstructures, including ferrite, pearlite, bainite, and Ni-rich areas, were identified. The correlations between impact toughness with other mechanical properties were also studied. The results demonstrated that ferrite provides more resistance to impact loading than Ni-rich martensite, followed by bainite and pearlite. However, Ni-rich martensite presents the highest transverse rupture strength (TRS), fatigue strength, tensile strength, and hardness, followed by bainite, pearlite, and ferrite. With 74 pct Ni-rich martensite and 14 pct bainite, Fe-3Cr-0.5Mo-4Ni-0.5C steel achieves the optimal combination of impact energy (39 J), TRS (2170 MPa), bending fatigue strength at 2 × 10⁶ cycles (770 MPa), tensile strength (1323 MPa), and apparent hardness (38 HRC). The impact energy of Fe-3Cr-0.5Mo-4Ni-0.5C steel is twice as high as those of the ordinary high-strength PM steels. These findings demonstrate that a high-strength PM steel with high-toughness can be produced by optimized alloy design and microstructure.     

Microstructure and Properties of Mo Microalloyed Cold Rolled DP1O00 Steels

Two kinds of ultra-high strength cold rolled dual phase steels have been developed by designing C-Si-Mn-Cr and C-Si-Mn-Cr-Mo alloy systems. Tensile strength and elongation of both steels exceed 1 100 MPa and 10%, respectively. The microstructures of both steels consist of massive martensite and ferrite. And the massive martensite of Mo-free steel disperses in the ferrite with volume fraction of 64%. However, the massive martensite of Mo-containing steel is connected or closed by small martensite islands each other, and martensite volume fraction is 69%.As to Mo-free steel, the yield strength, yield ratio, and work hardening exponent n are 548 MPa, 0.49, and 0.26,respectively. As for Mo-containing one, the yield strength, yield ratio, and n value are 746 MPa, 0. 66, and 0.33,respectively. Besides, the ferrite of Mo-free steel is deformed at the initial stage of plastic deformation. However,for Mo-containing one, Mo solution strengthened ferrite and small overaged martensite islands are deformed preferentially at small strain, which causes the yield strength to reach approximately 200 MPa higher than that of Mo-free steel.     

Role of retained austenite on the deformation of an Fe-0.07 C-1.8 Mn-1.4 Si dual-phase steel

The influence of retained austenite on the work hardening behavior of dual-phase steel has been investigated with an Fe-0.07 C-1.8 Mn-1.4 Si steel. With a constant cooling rate of 5 °C per second after intercritical annealing at 780 °C, a significant quantity (about 8 vol pct) of retained austenite was obtained in the dual-phase microstructure. The retained austenite was classified morphologically into either ‘isolated’ or ‘capsulated’ types by TEM observation. The ‘capsulated’ type, which was found without a particular shape inside the microtwinned martensite particle, withstood much deformation by being protected by the surrounding martensite. While the ‘isolated’ type, which was found with an equiaxed shape and was isolated from martensite particles, was easily deformed by the first several percent plastic strain. The increase in work hardening rate, caused by the strain induced transformation of retained austenite to martensite, was ascribed to the contribution of the ‘isolated’ type, the major volume fraction of retained austenite. The effect of the retained austenite on the yielding of dual-phase steel was not indicated since the reduction in the volume fraction of retained austenite was negligible at the initial deformation stage.     

Microstructure–mechanical property relationship in hot-rolled high-Al-low-Si dual-phase steel

In this study, the effect of finish rolling temperature and coiling temperature on the microstructure and mechanical properties of high-Al-low-Si dual-phase (DP) steels is explored. Two different finish rolling temperatures (850 and 790°C) and three different coiling temperatures (200, 250 and 300°C) were studied. The results indicated that all the different processing conditions led to ferrite-martensite DP microstructure. With the decrease in finish rolling temperature, the volume fraction of ferrite was increased and martensite content was decreased. When the coiling temperature was increased to 300°C, autotempered martensite was obtained, which led to the softening of martensite and decrease in tensile strength and strain hardening ability, but higher post-necking elongation. Moreover, the nanoscale Nb-based carbides played a crucial role in refining the microstructure of hot-rolled high-Al-low-Si DP steel. EBSD (Electron Backscattered Diffraction) analysis revealed that the ferrite grains were fine, and decrease in finish rolling temperature and coiling temperature led to an increase in low-angle boundaries. When the finish rolling temperature was decreased to 790°C and coiling temperature was decreased to 200°C, the steel had excellent mechanical properties with tensile strength of 885?MPa, uniform and total elongation of 16.0 and 25.94%, respectively, and the product of tensile strength and total elongation was 20?264?MPa%. The improvement of strength and plasticity can be attributed to the fraction of ferrite and martensite, precipitation of NbC, fine microstructure.     

Microstructure Evolution During Hot Deformation of a Micro-Alloyed Steel

In the present investigation, hot deformation by uniaxial compression of a microalloyed steel has been carried out, using a deformation dilatometer, after homogenization at 1200 °C for 20 min up to strains of 0.4, 0.8 and 1.2 at different temperatures of 900, 1000 and 1100 °C, at a constant strain rate of 2 s^?1 followed by water quenching. In all the deformation conditions, initiation of dynamic recrystallization (DRX) is observed, however, stress peaks are not observed in the specimens deformed at 900 and 1000 °C. The specimens deformed at 900 °C showed a combination of acicular ferrite (AF) and bainite (B) microstructure. There is an increase in the acicular ferrite fraction with increase in strain at all these deformation temperatures. At high deformation temperature of 1100 °C, coarsening of DRXed grains is observed. This is attributed to the common limitations involved in fast quenching of the DRXed microstructure, which leads to increase in grain size by metadynamic recrystallization (MDRX). The strain free prior austenite grains promote the formation of large fraction of both bainite and martensite in the transformed microstructures during cooling. The length and width of bainitic ferrite laths also increases with increase in deformation temperature from 900 to 1100 °C and decrease in deformation strain.     

The Formation of Complex Microstructures After Different Deformation Modes in Advanced High-Strength Steels

The microstructure of transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) and dual phase (DP) multiphase steels after stamping of an industrial component at different strain levels was investigated using transmission electron microscopy. The TRIP steel microstructure showed a more complex dislocation substructure of ferrite at different strain levels than DP steel. The deformation microstructure of the stamped parts was compared to the deformation microstructure in these complex steels for different “equivalent” tensile strains. It was found that the microstructures are similar only at high levels of strain (>10 pct) for both steels.     

Microstructure-mechanical property relationships of dual-phase steel wire

The high strain hardening rate and formability of dual-phase steels makes them promising choices for drawing into high strength wire. As the fundamental part of an alloy design project, dual-phase steels with several different martensite volume fractions, particle shapes, particle sizes, compositions, and crystallographic relations with the ferrite matrix were studied. They were wire drawn with true strains of up to 6.1. The initial microstructure, void formation tendency, drawability, and mechanical properties of the various steels were compared and correlated. The Fe-2Si-0.1C alloy was found to be the most promising with a suggested reduction in the carbon level to 0.06 to 0.08 pct. The double heat treatment which consists of quenching from austenite to martensite followed by intercritical annealing and quenching produced the best microstructure for drawing into wire. The annealing temperature should be adjusted to yield 25 to 30 vol pct martensite in the final microstructure. Stress relief after drawing provided a substantial increase in ductility without significant loss in strength.     

Microstructure and Properties of Mo Microalloyed Cold Rolled DP1000 Steels

  Two kinds of ultra high strength cold rolled dual phase steels have been developed by designing C Si Mn Cr and C Si Mn Cr Mo alloy systems. Tensile strength and elongation of both steels exceed 1100 MPa and 10%, respectively. The microstructures of both steels consist of massive martensite and ferrite. And the massive martensite of Mo free steel disperses in the ferrite with volume fraction of 64%. However, the massive martensite of Mo containing steel is connected or closed by small martensite islands each other, and martensite volume fraction is 69%. As to Mo free steel, the yield strength, yield ratio, and work hardening exponent n are 548 MPa, 049, and 026, respectively. As for Mo containing one, the yield strength, yield ratio, and n value are 746 MPa, 066, and 033, respectively. Besides, the ferrite of Mo free steel is deformed at the initial stage of plastic deformation. However, for Mo containing one, Mo solution strengthened ferrite and small overaged martensite islands are deformed preferentially at small strain, which causes the yield strength to reach approximately 200 MPa higher than that of Mo free steel.     

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of a Low-Carbon Mn-Si Multiphase Steel Based on Dynamic Transformation of Undercooled Austenite

The microstructure evolution of 0.20C-2.00Mn-2.00Si steel treated by the thermomechanical process to manufacture hot-rolled, transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) steel based on dynamic transformation of undercooled austenite was investigated using a Gleeble 1500 (Dynamic Systems, Inc., Poestenkill, NY) hot simulation test machine in combination with light microscope (LM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The mechanical properties of this steel with different multiphase microstructures were also analyzed using room-temperature tensile tests. The results indicated that the multi-phase microstructures consisting of fine-grained ferrite with a size of 1–3 μm, bainite packets, and retained austenite and martensite were formed for the used steel by a thermo-mechanical process involving dynamic transformation of undercooled austenite, controlled cooling, isothermal bainite treatment and water-quenching. With the increase in the strain of hot deformation of undercooled austenite, the fraction of ferrite increased, that of bainite decreased, and that of martensite increased. At the same time, the fraction of retained austenite (RA), as well as the carbon content of RA, first increased and then decreased. For the used steel treated by such process, the tensile strength is about 1200 MPa with a total elongation of about 20 pct, and the product of tensile strength and total elongation can be up to 25,000 MPa × pct.     

A Mechanical,Microstructural, and Damage Study of Various Tailor Hot Stamped Material Conditions Consisting of Martensite,Bainite, Ferrite,and Pearlite

This paper examines the mechanical, microstructural, and damage characteristics of five different material conditions that were created using the tailored hot stamping process with in-die heating. The tailored material conditions, TMC1 to TMC5 (softest-hardest), were created using die temperatures ranging from 700 °C to 400 °C, respectively. The tensile strength (and total elongation) ranged from 615 MPa (0.24) for TMC1 to 1122 MPa (0.11) for TMC5. TMC3 and TMC4 exhibited intermediate strength levels, with almost no increase in total elongation relative to TMC5. FE-SEM microscopy was used to quantify the mixed-phase microstructures, which ranged in volume fractions of ferrite, pearlite, bainite, and martensite. High-resolution optical microscopy was used to quantify void accumulation and showed that the total void area fraction at ~ 0.60 thickness strain was low for TMC1 and TMC5 (~ 0.09 pct) and highest for TMC3 (0.31 pct). Damage modes were characterized and revealed that the poor damage behavior of TMC3 (martensite/bainite/ferrite composition) was a result of small martensitic grains forming at grain boundaries and grain boundary junctions, which facilitated void nucleation as shown by the highest measured void density for this particular material condition. The excellent ductility of TMC1 was a result of a large grained ferritic/pearlitic microstructure that was less susceptible to void nucleation and growth. Large titanium nitride (TiN) inclusions were observed in all of the tailored material conditions and it was shown that they noticeably contributed to the total void accumulation, specifically for the TMC3 and TMC4 material conditions.     

Micromechanical Modeling of Strain-Hardening Behavior in Dual-Phase Steels

A mathematical model is developed to consider the impact of microstructural parameters, including the volume fraction and the average particle size of martensite, on the flow stress and strain-hardening behavior of dual-phase microstructure. In this regard, the micromechanical approach is applied for partitioning the stress and strain in ferrite and martensite. Martensite carbon content and geometrically necessary dislocations, generated from austenite-to-martensite transformation, and strain accommodation at the ferrite–martensite interface, are involved to modify the partitioned stress of martensite and ferrite, respectively. Having partitioned stress in each phase, the global stress is estimated as the function of steel chemical composition, ferrite grain size, martensite particle size, aspect ratio, and volume fraction. To evaluate the applicability of the proposed model, four dual-phase steels containing 12, 25, 34, and 48% volume fractions of martensite are prepared from the intermediate quenching process, and then after the strain-hardening stages are investigated. Comparing the experimental result and model output reveals that the presented model shows good predictive capabilities to identify strain-hardening stages and estimate the inverse of the strain-hardening exponent.     

Effect of Intercritical Annealing Time on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Dual-Phase Steel Processed by Large-Strain Asymmetric Cold-Rolling

Herein, the effect of intercritical annealing time on the microstructure and mechanical properties of dual-phase steel processed by large-strain asymmetric cold-rolling is studied. It is observed that the martensite islands are uniformly distributed in the ferrite phase in the microstructures of dual-phase steels due to performing the asymmetric cold-rolling before intercritical annealing treatment. As the intercritical annealing time increases up to 10 min, the fraction of martensite increases. By increasing the holding time and fraction of martensite, the carbon content of the martensite phase is decreased. The short-term intercritical annealing eliminates the yield point phenomenon. However, intercritical annealing at 860 °C for 20 min leads to the reoccurrence of a yield point phenomenon. Increasing the intercritical annealing time to 10 min improves the yield strength to 505 MPa and ultimate tensile strength to 834 MPa. However, the strength decreases sharply after the holding time of 20 min. There is a perfect linear relationship between the mechanical properties and the fraction of martensite. Ductile failure is observed at the center of the fracture surfaces of dual-phase steels while shear failure occurs at the edges of the fracture surfaces.     

Mechanical Behavior of Carbide-free Medium Carbon Bainitic Steels

The effect of bainitic transformation time on the microstructure and mechanical properties was investigated in a steel containing 0.4 pct C-2.8 pct Mn-1.8 pct Si. The microstructure was characterized using optical and transmission electron microscopy; it consisted of bainitic ferrite, martensite, and retained austenite. The volume fraction of bainite increased from 0.4 for the shortest bainitic transformation time (30 minutes) to 0.9 at the longest time (120 minutes). The above microstructures exhibited an extended elasto-plastic transition leading to very high initial work-hardening rates. The work-hardening behavior was investigated in detail using strain-path reversals to measure the back stresses. These measurements point to a substantial kinematic hardening due to the mechanical contrast between the microstructural constituents. The onset of necking coincided with the saturation of kinematic hardening. Examination of the fracture surfaces indicated that the prior austenite grain boundaries play an important role in the fracture process.     

The influence of martensite shape,concentration, and phase transformation strain on the deformation behavior of stable dual-phase steels

A continuum model is developed to examine the influence of martensite shape, volume fraction, phase transformation strain, and thermal mismatch on the initial plastic state of the ferrite matrix following phase transformation and on the subsequent stress-strain behavior of the dual-phase steels upon loading. The theory is developed based on a relaxed constraint in the ductile matrix and an energy criterion to define its effective stress. In addition, it also assumes the martensite islands to possess a spheroidal shape and to be randomly oriented and homogenously dispersed in the ferrite matrix. It is found that for a typical water-quenched process from an intercritical temperature of 760 °C, the critical martensite volume fraction needed to induce plastic deformation in the ferrite matrix is very low, typically below 1 pct, regardless of the martensite shape. Thus, when the two-phase system is subjected to an external load, plastic deformation commences immediately, resulting in the widely observed “continuous yielding” behavior in dual-phase steels. The subsequent deformation of the dual-phase system is shown to be rather sensitive to the martensite shape, with the disc-shaped morphology giving rise to a superior overall response (over the spherical type). The stress-strain relations are also dependent upon the magnitude of the prior phase transformation strain. The strength coefficienth and the work-hardening exponentn of the smooth, parabolic-type stress-strain curves of the dual-phase system also increase with increasing martensite content for each selected inclusion shape. Comparison with an exact solution and with one set of experimental data indicates that the theory is generally within a reasonable range of accuracy. Formerly Visiting Professor, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Rutgers University     

Microstructural changes and kinetics of recrystallisation in a few dual-phase steels

Dual-phase structures were produced in three steels (designated A1, A2 and A3) using two different heat-treatment cycles which incorporate intercritical annealing at a temperature of 750°C. In general, alloy A2 contains the maximum and alloy A1 the minimum volume fraction of martensite, with alloy A3 coming in between. All the cold-rolled alloys show elongated cell-like structures and also some deformation bands. Recrystallisation anneals were carried out at 650°C and 800°C. At the lower recrystallisation temperature of 650°C, the cold-worked ferrite starts to recrystallise, whereas, at the higher temperature of 800°C, re-austenitisation of martensite and recrystallisation of cold-worked ferrite take place simultaneously. During the recrystallisation anneal strain free ferrite grains are found to nucleate at both the deformed ferrite-martensite interfaces as well as inside the deformed ferrite grains. The process of recrystallisation in all three alloys, irrespective of the initial heat-treatment as well as annealing temperature, can be described as an in-situ process. The kinetics of primary recrystallisation of ferrite in the cold-rolled dual-phase steels was analysed from the relevant microhardness data using an Avrami-type relationship. In general, the Avrami plots show straight line segments with two distinct slopes, indicating two different processes during recrystallisation. The activation energies measured from the Arrhenius plots range between 66.88 and 83.6 kJ K mole^?1 which are close to the value 84.02 kJ K mole^?1 for the diffusion of carbon in α-Fe.