An assessment of cold work effects on strain-controlled low-cycle fatigue behavior of type 304 stainless steel

The influence of prior cold work (PCW) on low-cycle fatigue (LCF) behavior of type 304 stainless steel has been studied at 300, 823, 923, and 1023 K by conducting total axial strain-controlled tests in solution annealed (SA, 0 pct PCW) condition and on specimens having three levels of PCW, namely, 10, 20, and 30 pct. A triangular waveform with a constant frequency of 0.1 Hz was employed for all of the tests performed over strain amplitudes in the range of ±0.25 to ± 1.25 pct. These studies have revealed that fatigue life is strongly dependent on PCW, temperature, and strain amplitude employed in testing. The SA material generally displayed better endurance in terms of total and plastic strain amplitudes than the material in 10, 20, and 30 pct PCW conditions at all of the temperatures. However, at 300 K at very low strain amplitudes, PCW material exhibited better total strain fatigue resistance. At 823 K, LCF life decreased with increasing PCW, whereas at 923 K, 10 pct PCW displayed the lowest life. An improvement in life occurred for prior deformations exceeding 10 pct at all strain amplitudes at 923 K. Fatigue life showed a noticeable decrease with increasing temperature up to 1023 K in PCW state. On the other hand, SA material displayed a minimum in fatigue life at 923 K. The fatigue life results of SA as well as all of the PCW conditions obeyed the Basquin and Coffin-Manson relationships at 300, 823, and 923 K. The constants and exponents in these equations were found to depend on the test temperature and prior metallurgical state of the material. A study is made of cyclic stress-strain behavior in SA and PCW states and the relationship between the cyclic strain-hardening exponent and fatigue behavior at different temperatures has been explored. The influence of environment on fatigue crack initiation and propagation behavior has been examined.     

Low cycle fatigue behaviour of modified and conventional superalloy Inconel 718 at 650°C

The present investigation deals with the study and comparison of low cycle fatigue (LCF) behavior of modified IN 718 alloy with higher Al+Ti/Nb and Al/Ti ratios of 0.458 and 0.870, with that of conventional IN 718 alloy with corresponding ratios of 0.294 and 0.50 respectively. LCF tests were carried out in total strain control mode at total strain amplitudes (Δɛ_t/2) from ±0.625% to ±1.0%, in fully reversed loading (R= −1) at 650°C. The modified alloy was found to exhibit better LCF resistance than the conventional alloy.     

Effect of boron on the low-cycle fatigue behavior and deformation structure of INCONEL 718 at 650 °C

Symmetrical push-pull low-cycle fatigue (LCF) tests were performed on INCONEL 718 (IN718) containing 12, 29, 60, and 100 ppm B at 650 °C. The results showed that all the alloys experienced a relatively short period of initial cyclic hardening at low strain amplitudes, followed by a regime of saturation or slightly continuous cyclic softening. The initial cyclic hardening phase decreased with increasing strain amplitudes, and disappeared at the high strain amplitudes. A serrated flow was observed in the plastic regions of cyclic stress-strain hysteresis loops. The saturated cyclic stress amplitude at a given strain amplitude was highest for the alloy with 60 ppm B, and lowest for the alloy with 12 ppm B. The LCF lifetime increased with increasing B concentration up to 60 ppm, and then decreased as the B content increased from 60 to 100 ppm. Fractographic analysis suggested that the fracture mode changed from intergranular to transgranular cracking as the B concentration increased. The characteristic deformation microstructures produced by LCF tests at 650 °C, examined via transmission electron microscopy, were regularly spaced arrays of planar deformation bands on {111} slip planes in all four alloys. A ladderlike structure was observed in some local regions in the alloy with 12 ppm B. Heavily deformed planar deformation bands were observed in the fatigued specimens with 100 ppm B. The mechanism of improvement in the LCF life of IN718 due to B addition is discussed.     

Influence of strain-induced phase transformation on the surface crystallographic texture in cold-rolled-and-aged austenitic stainless steel

Stainless steels (SSs) having a stable and metastable austenitic phase were studied to see the influence of strain-induced phase transformation in the metastable austenitic stainless steel on the evolution of texture during cold rolling and aging. AISI 304L and 316L SS plates were unidirectionally cold rolled up to a 90 pct reduction and aged at different aging temperatures. The strain-induced transformation of austenite to α′-martensite phase and the evolution of texture in both the phases were studied as a function of rolling reduction as well as aging temperature in the metastable 304L austenitic stainless steel. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) technique was employed to quantify the volume fractions and characterize the texture of austenite and martensite phases in the rolled and aged conditions. Results are compared with the texture evolution in the stable austenitic 316L SS.     

The effects of cold working on sensitization and intergranular corrosion behavior of AISI 304 stainless steel

The effects of prior cold rolling of up to an 80 pct reduction in thickness on the sensitization-desensitization behavior of Type AISI 304 stainless steel and its susceptibility to intergranular corrosion have been studied by electrochemical potentiokinetic reactivation (EPR) and Strauss-test methods. The results indicate that the prior deformation accelerated the sensitization as compared to the undeformed stainless steel. The deformed Type 304 stainless steel experienced desensitization at higher temperatures and times, and it was found to be enhanced by increased cold deformation. This could be attributed to the increased long-range chromium diffusion, possibly brought on by increasing pipe diffusion and vacancies. The role of the deformation-induced martensite (DIM) and texture, introduced by uniaxial cold rolling, on the sensitization-desensitization kinetics has also been discussed. This study could not reveal any systematic relationship between texture and the degree of sensitization (DOS) obtained. The effect of DIM on DOS seems to be pronounced at 500 °C when the steel retained significant amounts of DIM; however, the retained DIM is insignificant at higher sensitization times and temperatures.     

Fracture Behavior of Cold Sprayed 304 Stainless Steel Coating During Cold Rolling

 The fracture behavior of cold sprayed 304 stainless steel coating in cold rolling process was studied. The 304 stainless steel coatings were deposited on low carbon steel substrate by cold gas dynamic spray (CGDS) and then cold rolled, respectively. The fracture morphology of the coatings was observed and analyzed, and the crack distributions along the longitudinal rolling direction of the coatings were also investigated and discussed. The results showed that the cohesive strength of the cold sprayed 304 stainless steel coating was too low to be cold rolled. Microcracks were formed in the as-sprayed coatings and ran perpendicularly to the rolling direction. The spacing distance between these cracks decreased with the increase of the cold rolling reduction. In addition, it was also found that the initial crack generated at the surface of the coating and propagated from the surface to the interface along the weakly bonded particles. A theoretical analysis was developed for the coating fracture. It gave a critical minimum cohesive bonding strength of the coating for non-breaking in cold rolling process. The crack propagation manner of the cold rolled coatings was also discussed.     

High temperature low cycle fatigue behaviour of P92 tungsten added 9Cr steel

Modified 9Cr-1Mo steel is being used extensively as structural material for steam generator components of liquid metal cooled fast breeder reactor and fossil fired power plants. The selection of this material is primarily based on a good combination of mechanical properties, high thermal conductivity, low thermal expansion coefficient and good resistance to stress corrosion cracking in water-steam and sodium environment systems compared to austenitic stainless steels. A further improvement of the thermal efficiency of modern steam turbines can be achieved by increasing the steam operating temperature. It has been found that the substitution of W for Mo enhances the high temperature tensile strength, fracture toughness and creep strength. This had led to the development of P92 Steel. The components of the steam generators are often subjected to repeated thermal stresses as a result of temperature gradients that occur on heating and cooling during start-ups and shut-downs or during temperature transients. This leads to low cycle fatigue (LCF) damage in the component. However, the data on LCF properties of the W added 9Cr steel (designated as P92 steel) is scarce and this paper aims in understanding the high temperature low cycle fatigue behaviour of P92 Steel. Total axial strain controlled low cycle fatigue tests have been conducted in air in the temperature range 823 and 873 K to ascertain the influence of temperature on the LCF behaviour of the steel. A constant ramp rate of 3 × 10^?3 s^?1 was employed for all the tests. The alloy exhibited a continuous softening before the final load drop that occurred due to the propagation of macro fatigue cracks. The softening rate is more for the tests conducted at higher strain amplitudes compared to that of lower strain amplitudes. Fatigue life decreased with increasing temperature and strain amplitude. In this paper the observed LCF results have been explained based on the detailed metallography and fractography conducted on the failed samples.     

冷轧变形量对304不锈钢力学性能的影响

 研究304奥氏体不锈钢薄板的硬度随冷轧变形量的变化规律,为奥氏体不锈钢薄板工业生产提供指导。同时,采用金相显微镜、维氏硬度测量、X-射线衍射仪和透射电镜研究了不同变形量冷轧对304不锈钢显微组织和机械性能的影响。在室温对0.5mm厚退火板材进行冷轧,使冷轧变形量从10%增加到52%。结果表明,形变诱发马氏体相变是导致304不锈钢冷轧时产生加工硬化的主要原因,冷轧可以显著提高钢的强度和硬度。当冷轧变形至40%时,304不锈钢的维氏硬度是未变形时的2.2倍,屈服强度、抗拉强度分别增大到未变形时的4.2倍（880MPa）和1.8倍（1312MPa）。     

Flow stress and microstructural evolution during hot working of alloy 22cr-13ni-5mn-0.3n austenitic stainless steel

The stress-strain behavior and the development of microstructure between 850 °C and 1150 °C in an austenitic stainless steel, 22Cr-13Ni-5Mn-0.3N, were investigated by uniaxial compression of cylindrical specimens at strain rates between 0.01 and 1 s^-1 up to a strain of one. The measured (anisothermal) and corrected (isothermal) flow curves were distinctly different. The flow stress at moderate hot working temperatures, compared to a number of other austenitic alloys, was second only to that of alloy 718. Both static and dynamic recrystallization were observed. Recrystallization was sluggish in comparison to alloy 304L, apparently due to the presence of a fine Cr- and Nb-rich second-phase dispersion, identified as Z phase, which tended to pin the high-angle grain boundaries even at a high temperature of 1113 °C. Recrystallization may also be retarded by preferential res-toration through the competitive process of recovery, which is consistent with the relatively high stacking-fault energy for this alloy. It is concluded that this alloy must be hot worked at temperatures higher than usual for austenitic stainless steels in order to minimize flow stress and refine grain size.     

Low-temperature fatigue of 316L and 316LN austenitic stainless steels

This article is concerned with the cyclic properties of 316L-type austenitic stainless at 300 and 77 K. The role of nitrogen alloying and of the temperature decrease is examined during low-cycle fatigue (LCF) and fatigue crack propagation. Fatigue resistance is enhanced by the addition of nitrogen in steel at both test temperatures. The results are discussed on the basis of micro-structural observations. Planar slip of dislocations is found in the nitrogen-containing steel and is favored by a decrease in test temperature. To some extent, the influence of interstitial nitrogen on the fatigue properties is related to its role in stabilizing austenite observed during cooling as well as during straining.     

Phase transformation of stainless steel during fatigue

Transformation of austenite during cyclic loading was studied in AISI 301 and 304 alloys whose stability was adjusted by heat treatment and temperature changes. Fatigue life was determined under controlled strain amplitude tension-compression conditions. The amount of transformation to α’ (bcc) martensite was continuously indicated magnetically during testing, and the α’ and ∈ (hcp) phases were observed metallographically at failure. It was found in room temperature testing that at strain amplitudes in excess of 0.4 pct the formation of α’ (bcc) martensite was detrimental to the fatigue life. At 200°F (366 K) the fatigue life of an unstable alloy was increased, while in a completely stable austenitic alloy (20Cr, 6Ni, 9Mn), the life at 200°F (366 K) was less than that at room temperature for the same cyclic strain amplitude. The differing effect of temperature on life of these two types of alloy is attributed to the alteration of the austenite stacking fault energy and the relative free energies of the α’ (bcc), ∈ (hcp) and γ (fcc) phases in the unstable alloys. It has been observed that within the standard composition ranges of the two 300 series stainless steel grades there can be marked differences in the degree of transformation resulting from cyclic loading. This has the implication that for fatigue applications modifications in the specifications for the different grades of stainless would be advantageous.     

Temperature and strain rate dependence of cyclic deformation response and damage accumulation in ofhc copper and 304 stainless steel

The effects of temperature and strain rate on deformation behavior and dislocation structure were investigated for OFHC copper and type 304 stainless steel. It is shown that the cyclic stress response is inversely related to the cell size for copper cycled at different temperatures ranging from -75 to 650°C. Type 304 stainless steel underwent a change from a planar to a wavy slip character as the temperature was changed from room temperature to 760°C. At elevated temperatures, cells were observed and the size of the cells tended to increase with increase in temperature. The effects of temperature on the cyclic stress-strain parameters were investigated for copper, type 304 stainless steel and Ferrovac “E” iron. On studying the effects of temperature and strain rate on the fracture mechanisms it was found that a time dependent fracture mode was dominant at high temperature levels and low strain rates. However, at high strain rates the life was insensitive to temperature. The role of grain boundary migration on the fracture process was investigated. Grain boundary migration was found to be dependent on strain rate for copper. However, for type 304 stainless steel, the grain boundary migration was inhibited at high temperature (760°C) due to the presence of precipitates at the grain boundaries. In strain cycling of OFHC copper and type 304 stainless steel, it was found that the addition of creep-type damage to fatigue damage resulted in a total damage which was not equal to unity for failure when these different modes were imposed sequentially. The sense of the damage accumulation appeared to have no effect on this summation.     

Low cycle fatigue and creep-fatigue interaction behaviour of 316L(N) stainless steel and its welds

High temperature low cycle fatigue (LCF) is influenced by various time dependent processes such as creep, oxidation, phase transformations and dynamic strain ageing (DSA) depending on test conditions of strain rate and temperature. In this paper the detrimental effects of DSA and oxidation in high temperature LCF are discussed with reference to extensive studies on 316L(N) stainless steel. DSA has been found to enhance the stress response and reduce ductility. It localizes fatigue deformation, enhances fatigue cracking and reduces fatigue life. High temperature oxidation accelerates transgranular and intergranular fatigue cracking during long hold time tests in austenitic stainless steel. In welds, microstructural features such as presence of coarse grains and formation of brittle phases due to transformation of δ ferrite during testing influence crack initiation, propagation and fatigue life.     

A comparative evaluation of low cycle fatigue behavior of conventional and modified INCONEL 718

Structural stability of the Inconel 718 is reported to enhance at temperatures above 650°C, with increase in Al/Ti and Al + Ti/Nb atomic ratios. However, no report is available on low cycle fatigue behavior of the modified compositions of the Inconel 718. The present investigation deals with comparative study of LCF behavior of the conventional and modified 718 with Al + Ti/Nb ratios of 0.294 and 0.459 respectively at 650°C. It was observed that fatigue life of the modified alloy, in terms of Coffin-Manson relationship was higher than that of the conventional one.     

Static and Cyclic Deformation Behavior of the Ferritic Steel 16Mo3 Under Monotonic and Cyclic Loading at High Temperatures

The ferritic steel 16Mo3 is commonly used for heat exchangers and steam generators. The temperature loading conditions for these applications range typically from 200 to 500°C. For a basic characterization of the steel 16Mo3, the properties were determined by means of tensile tests with different strain rates. At 200 and 300°C, a negative strain‐rate sensitivity was observed which is due to dynamic strain ageing (Portevin–LeChâtelier effect). To characterize the low cycle fatigue (LCF) behavior of this steel, isothermal strain‐controlled LCF tests were carried out at 200 and 500°C at different strain amplitudes. The cyclic stress response curves are showing principally different courses at the investigated temperatures. The stress relaxation behavior was obtained by cyclic load enhancement tests at various strain amplitudes with dwell times of 30 and 120 s.     

Strain controlled fatigue deformation and fracture of nitrogen alloyed 316LN austenitic stainless steel

In this paper, Low cycle fatigue (LCF) behavior of 316LN austenitic stainless steel alloyed with 0.078 and 0.22 wt% nitrogen, designated as N078 and N022 steels respectively, is compared in the temperature range 300–873 K by strain controlled fatigue tests at ± 0.6% strain amplitude. Interestingly, N022 steel showed continuous decrease in fatigue life with temperature in contrast to N078 steel which showed maximum in fatigue life at 573 K. Drastic reduction in fatigue life is observed in both the steels in the temperature range 673–873 K and has been attributed to the occurrence of dynamic strain aging. Both steels exhibited manifestations (for ex.: decrease in plastic strain and anomalous stress response with increase in temperature) corresponding to the occurrence of Dynamic Strain Ageing (DSA) in the above temperature range. Under all testing conditions, fracture surfaces revealed transgranular crack initiation and transgranular crack propagation.     

A comparative evaluation of low-cycle fatigue behavior of type 316LN base metal, 316 weld metal,and 316LN/316 weld joint

A comparative evaluation of the low-cycle fatigue (LCF) behavior of type 316LN base metal, 316 weld metal, and 316LN/316 weld joints was carried out at 773 and 873 K. Total strain-controlled LCF tests were conducted at a constant strain rate of 3 × 10⁻³ s⁻¹ with strain amplitudes in the range ±0.20 to ±1.0 pct. Weld pads with single V and double V configuration were prepared by the shielded metal-arc welding (SMAW) process using 316 electrodes for weld-metal and weld-joint specimens. Optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of the untested and tested samples were carried out to elucidate the deformation and the fracture behavior. The cyclic stress response of the base metal shows a very rapid hardening to a maximum stress followed by a saturated stress response. Weld metal undergoes a relatively short initial hardening followed by a gradual softening regime. Weld joints exhibit an initial hardening and a subsequent softening regime at all strain amplitudes, except at low strain amplitudes where a saturation regime is noticed. The initial hardening observed in base metal has been attributed to interaction between dislocations and solute atoms/complexes and cyclic saturation to saturation in the number density of slip bands. From TEM, the cyclic softening in weld metal was ascribed to the annihilation of dislocations during LCF. Type 316LN base metal exhibits better fatigue resistance than weld metal at 773 K, whereas the reverse holds true at 873 K. The weld joint shows the lowest life at both temperatures. The better fatigue resistance of weld metal is related to the brittle transformed delta ferrite structure and the high density of dislocations at the interface, which inhibits the growth rate of cracks by deflecting the crack path. The lower fatigue endurance of the weld joint was ascribed to the shortening of the crack initiation phase caused by surface intergranular crack initiation and to the poor crack propagation resistance of the coarse-grained region in the heat-affected zone.