Raffinose content may influence cottonseed susceptibility to aflatoxin contamination

The effect of the cotton storage trisaccharide raffinose and cottonseed storage protein (CSP) in combination on aflatoxin production by Aspergillus flavus was investigated. The ability of ground whole cottonseed and water-extracted cottonseed meal to support fungal biosynthesis of aflatoxin also was assessed in vitro. Dose response data showed that utilization of raffinose as a sole carbon source supported growth and aflatoxin production by A. flavus. When raffinose was a carbon source and CSP was the sole nitrogen source, aflatoxin levels were stimulated up to fourfold above those in raffinose reference media. Results with ground whole cottonseed as a sole carbon/nitrogen source demonstrated the capacity for aflatoxin production in A. flavus cultures. Lipid extraction of ground whole seed severely reduced aflatoxigenesis potential; however, lipid extraction followed by water extraction of ground whole seed restored much of the aflatoxin biosynthetic potential, suggesting the presence of a water soluble inhibitory factor. Accessible carbon appeared to be the limiting resource in water-extracted meal, as a raffinose supplement stimulated aflatoxin production. Either cottonseed storage lipid or raffinose was capable of providing accessible carbon to A. flavus. Raffinose and CSP in developing and mature cottonseed may predispose seed to potentially high levels of aflatoxin contamination by A. flavus upon seed infection.     

Detoxification of cottonseed by salts and alkalies

In a series of four tests in which three deliberately chosen toxic cottonseed meals were treated with aqueous solutions of salts and alkalies, it was found that the best detoxifying effect was obtained with sodium hydroxide, followed very closely by potassium and ammonium hydroxides. Dry heat treatment alone did not detoxify, and mortality was high. Treatment with moisture plus heat gave partial detoxification. Of the 22 chemically-treated cottonseed meal samples tested, those treated with alkalies showed the best weight gains, the order of decreasing effectiveness being The residual toxicity of treated cottonseed meals cannot be explained on the basis of their free gossypol content as analyzed for meals with high values gave better growth performance than some with lower levels of free gossypol. There were also very marked differences in final body weight after 8 weeks of feeding six different treated cottonseed meal samples having practically the same free gossypol content.     

Processing for nonruminant feed markets

Processing methods can be controlled to provide a cottonseed meal that is improved nutritionally and substantially free from toxic principles. In so doing, cottonseed meal can be fed beneficially to cattle, poultry, swine, and even trout. It is, therefore, possible to feed cottonseed meal to animals and poultry up to 10% of their dietary levels without harmful effects like minimizing their growth, reducing their bone marrow, harming their spleens, or discoloring their egg yolks. It is, however, necessary to prove to those who might use the meal that the feeding is economically sound and as productive as other meals.     

The determination of aflatoxins in cottonseed products

A rapid and simplified procedure is proposed for the determination of aflatoxins B₁, B₂, G₁, and G₂ in cottonseed products. The method involves extraction of aflatoxins essentially free of lipid contamination by equilibrium extraction with 70% acetone. Interfering gossypol pigments are removed from the aqueous acetone extract by precipitation as insoluble lead salts. Aflatoxins in the centrifugate are quantitatively separated from excess lead salts, residual pigments and carbohydrates by extraction into chloroform to yield final extracts for thin-layer chromatographic (TLC) analysis on silica gel which are low in total solids and pigmentation. The procedure is sensitive to about 1 ppb in cottonseed meats and 4 ppb in cottonseed meal. Honorable mention, Bond Award competition. Presented at the American Oil Chemists’ Society, Chicago, October 11–14, 1964. A laboratory of the So. Utiliz. Res. and Dev. Div., ARS, USDA.     

Cottonseed extraction with mixtures of acetone and hexane

Cottonseed flakes were extracted with mixtures of n-hexane and acetone, with the concentration of acetone varying between 10 and 75%. Adding small amounts of acetone (≤25%) to n-hexane significantly increased the extraction of free and total gossypol from cottonseed flakes. Sensory testing detected no difference in the odor of cottonseed meals produced either by extraction with 100% n-hexane or by extraction with a 10∶90 (vol/vol) mixture of acetone/hexane. More than 80% of the free gossypol was removed by the 10∶90 mixture of acetone/hexane, whereas pure n-hexane extracted about 47% of the free gossypol from cottonseed flakes. A solvent mixture containing 25% acetone removed nearly 90% of the free gossypol that was removable by extraction with pure acetone; the residual meal had only a minimal increase in odor. In contrast, cottonseed meals produced by extraction with pure acetone had a much higher odor intensity. The composition of the cottonseed crude oil was insignificantly affected by the acetone concentration of the extraction solvent. The results indicate that mixtures of acetone and n-hexane can be used as extraction solvents to produce cottonseed crude oil without the concomitant development of odorous meals.     

Ethanol vapor deactivation of gossypol in cottonseed meal

Most cottonseed cultivars contain gossypol, a polyphenolic antinutritional compound. “Free” gossypol is a physiologically active form of gossypol, which is toxic to young- and nonruminant animals. To utilize solvent-extracted cottonseed meal as a general feed, gossypol must be either removed or deactivated to a minimum level specified for each class of animal. Normally, deactivation is carried out prior to oil extraction; however, the desired level of deactivation is not always attained. A new supplemental method of deactivation has been found by using either ethanol or isopropanol vapors on solventextracted meal. In a bench-top set-up, ethanol vapor reduced free gossypol from 0.115 to 0.053%, and a further reduction to 0.026% has been observed with the addition of ferrous sulfate. The supplemental deactivation method can, in most cases, reduce free gossypol to significantly safer levels for feeding, thus increasing utility, and possibly demand, for cottonseed meal as a general animal feed protein source. Presented in part at the AOCS Annual Meeting, Atlanta, GA, May 8–12, 1994.     

Cottonseed extraction with a new solvent system: Isohexane and alcohol mixtures

A solvent system, consisting of isohexane and 5 to 25% alcohol, either ethanol (EtOH) or isopropyl alcohol (IPA), was tested for extracting gossypol and oil from cottonseed. The test results indicate that this new solvent system not only is effective in removing free and total gossypol but also is as efficient as n-hexane when extracting oil. The amino acid analysis of cottonseed meal, produced by the new solvent system, is similar to that produced by commercial n-hexane. Present commercial cottonseed extraction and downstream processing of cottonseed oil refining may need little change to adopt this new solvent system. This new solvent system may lead to a solution to the gossypol problem of cottonseed extraction.     

The reduction of free gossypol in cottonseed flakes during solvent extraction

Conclusions Extraction with trichloroethylene was found to be an effective method of reducing the free gossypol content of flaked cottonseed meats. The reduction was found to be a function of both extraction temperature and residual extractables in the extracted meal. Because of the low temperatures involved the meal produced by this method has a higher soluble protein content than a meal in which the free gossypol is reduced by heat treatment.     

Bioactive compounds, antioxidant, xanthine oxidase inhibitory, tyrosinase inhibitory and anti-inflammatory activities of selected agro-industrial by-products

Evaluation of abundantly available agro-industrial by-products for their bioactive compounds and biological activities is beneficial in particular for the food and pharmaceutical industries. In this study, rapeseed meal, cottonseed meal and soybean meal were investigated for the presence of bioactive compounds and antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, xanthine oxidase and tyrosinase inhibitory activities. Methanolic extracts of rapeseed meal showed significantly (P < 0.01) higher phenolics and flavonoids contents; and significantly (P < 0.01) higher DPPH and nitric oxide free radical scavenging activities when compared to that of cottonseed meal and soybean meal extracts. Ferric thiocyanate and thiobarbituric acid tests results showed rapeseed meal with the highest antioxidant activity (P < 0.01) followed by BHT, cotton seed meal and soybean meal. Rapeseed meal extract in xanthine oxidase and tyrosinase inhibitory assays showed the lowest IC(50) values followed by cottonseed and soybean meals. Anti-inflammatory assay using IFN-γ/LPS stimulated RAW 264.7 cells indicated rapeseed meal is a potent source of anti-inflammatory agent. Correlation analysis showed that phenolics and flavonoids were highly correlated to both antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Rapeseed meal was found to be promising as a natural source of bioactive compounds with high antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, xanthine oxidase and tyrosinase inhibitory activities in contrast to cotton and soybean meals.     

Crambe seed processing: Decomposition of glucosinolates (thioglucosides) with chemical additives

Crambe meal was cooked with a variety of bases and metal salts to study decomposition of the undesirable glucosinolate (thioglucoside),epi-progoitrin. Salts of iron and copper were preferred because they were the most active decomposers and because they did not reduce the lysine content as did the alkalies. An unsaturated hydroxy nitrile, representing about 25 mole per cent of the decomposedepi-progoitrin, was the major reaction product left in the cooked meal. A thionamide product, representing about 7 mole per cent of the decomposedepi-progoitrin, was also observed in meals cooked with metallic salts. The thionamide was relatively unstable in moist, hot crambe meal, especially at basic pH, and may therefore be an intermediate in a complex decomposition path. Rats fed ferrous sulfate-treated crambe meal as 30% of a protein sufficient diet gained 70% compared with a basal control. Enlargement of thyroid, liver and kidneys was about 1.5 times that of the control organs. A crambe meal heated under the same conditions but without ferrous sulfate and fed at the same diet level caused 100% mortality within two weeks. Presented at AOCS Meeting, Houston, Texas, May 1971. Northern Marketing and Nutrition Research Division, ARS, USDA.     

A new method of detoxification of cottonseed by means of mixed solvent extraction

For several decades, scientists in the field of vegetable oils tried unsuccessfully to detoxify cottonseed by a practical method. By using 20-30% (by wt) of ethyl alcohol (90% in vol) with commercial hexane as a mixed solvent, we were able to extract effectively both gossypol and oil from cottonseed prepressed cake or flakes. Free gossypol in meal was reduced to ca. 0.013-0.04%; total gossypol was reduced to 0.32-0.55%; residual oil was reduced to ca. 0.5% or less. Any aflatoxin present also can be eliminated by this process. The detoxified cottonseed meal can be used as animal feed. Cottonseed protein can be used to substitute for soy protein. The extracted oil is of better quality than that obtained by the usual hexane extraction method, and gossypol is a valuable byproduct.     

Detoxification of castor seed meal by interaction with sal seed meal

Castor (Ricinus communis) seed meal was detoxified by a novel method of wet mixing with sal (Shorea robusta) seed meal so that the toxic constituents of castor seed meal were neutralized by tannins, the toxicants present in the sal seed meal. The resulting product was innocuous, as revealed in the feeding studies in rats. The nutritional benefit of the treated material is improved by synergistic action of a protein such as casein. The aqueous extract of castor seed meal produced a smooth-muscle stimulant effect, whereas this effect was not observed with the extract from treated meal. This is a new concept of neutralization of two toxins by each other in two seed meals. The method can be employed to investigate the suitability of such a processed seed meal as an animal feedstuff ingredient.     

Aqueous solvents for extracting glanded cottonseed protein without gland rupture

The presence of pigment glands has thwarted attempts to extract edible cottonseed protein aqueously from glanded seeds or gland-rich meals, probably because of the widely held belief that glands rupture on contact with aqueous media. We found several aqueous salt solutions in which glands did not rupture. Glands remained intact in saturated (2m) sodium sulfate, but not in saturated 2m or 4m solutions of sulfates, chlorides, and nitrates of other Group IA elements as well as sodium chloride and sodium nitrate. Glands also remained intact in saturated solutions of sulfates of aluminum, ammonium, cadmium, copper, magnesium, nickel, and zinc, and chlorides of calcium, iron, and magnesium. Some of these solutions were diluted to <50% saturation before glands started rupturing. Cottonseed protein in the liquid cyclone underflow fraction (gland-rich fraction) was soluble in sodium sulfate and magnesium sulfate, but not in calcium chloride or sodium phosphate. Its solubility in sodium sulfate was investigated further with the following results: Alkalinity of sodium sulfate solution had no effect on solubility; ratio of solid to solvent had no effect in the range of 1:3.5–1:60 (wt:vol); 80% saturated sodium sulfate was optimal for solubility without gland rupture; the period of contact of meal and solvent had no effect on protein solubility in the range of a few minutes to 2 hr. These results indicate that the extraction of cottonseed protein with aqueous solvents in the presence of pigment glands appears technically feasible. Presented in part in the Symposium entitled “Oliseed Proteins—Food Use Potentials and Problems” at the AOCS Meeting in Dallas, June 1975.     

Inactivation of aflatoxins in peanut and cottonseed meals by ammoniation

Aflatoxins in peanut and cottonseed meal can be inactivated by treatment with gaseous ammonia. In pilot plant runs, contaminated peanut meal was ammoniated at two levels each of moisture content, reaction time, temperature and ammonia pressure. Thin layer chromatography indicated that ammoniation inactivated the aflatoxins (121 ppb) in the meal to a nondetectable level. With a similar treatment, total aflatoxins (350 ppb) in cottonseed meal were reduced to 4 ppb. A series of runs was made with large scale equipment using cottonseed meal containing an average of 519 ppb total aflatoxins. Under optimum processing conditions, aflatoxin content of this meal was reduced to below 5 ppb and non-detectable levels. So. Utiliz. Res. Dev. Div., ARS, USDA.     

Extraction of metals from sulphides using sulphur trioxide in fluidised bed

The kinetics of the reaction of chalcopyrite, iron sulphide, copper sulphide, and nickel sulphide with sulphur trioxide gas were studied using a fluidised bed technique. O₂, N₂, or air was used as a carrier gas for the sulphur trioxide in fluidisation. Binary mixtures of finely ground (0.37–75 μm) samples were reacted with the sulphur trioxide in a Pyrex column at 373–673 K. The reaction products were leached with water and the soluble metals in the solution were determined by atomic absorption spectrometry. The total soluble reaction products were determined gravimetrically. The results obtained showed that a higher yield of soluble salts was obtained when O₂ or air was used as a carrier gas for sulphur trioxide than when an inert gas was used. Higher yields of soluble salts were obtained when the samples were most finely ground. Increase of copper sulphide content in binary mixtures with iron or nickel sulphide led to an increase in the yield of soluble salts. For iron sulphide/nickel sulphide mixtures, the yield of soluble salts increased with the nickel sulphide content. There were maximum values for the soluble metal ratios Ni/Fe and Cu/Ni in the corresponding sulphide binary mixtures and this maximum was at about 50% weight. The soluble Cu/Fe ratio increased with copper sulphide content in mixtures with iron sulphide.     

Effects of pH and storage time on the adhesive and rheological properties of cottonseed meal‐based products

To increase the basic knowledge of cottonseed meal (CSM)‐based adhesives and optimize the operational parameters for practical applications, in this study, we investigated the effects of pH and storage time on the adhesive performance, water resistance, and rheological properties of CSM, water‐washed cottonseed meal (WCSM), and cottonseed protein isolate (CSPI). We found all products possessed the highest dry, wet, and soaked adhesive strengths with the adhesive slurries prepared at pH 6.0. The effects of pH were smaller on WCSM than on CSM and CSPI slurries. Storage time (up to 8 days) did not greatly impact the adhesive performance of WCSM slurries prepared at pH 6.0, 7.5, and 9.0, but slightly reduced the adhesive strength of CSPI slurries with the same pH. The viscosity of WCSM slurries increased with storage over 8 days, but did not for CSPI slurries. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2016 , 133, 43637.     

Binding of metal cations by natural substances

The binding of mercuric chloride and other metal salts to bark, activated sludge (Milorganite), chitosan, poly(p-aminostyrene), and other natural and synthetic materials was investigated by specific atomic absorption and x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy. The synthetic poly(aminostyrene) was included for comparison with the natural polyamine chitosan. Our results show that a wide range of natural materials are potentially useful for the removal of toxic and precious metals that may be present in industrial effluents, mine waters, or other water supply. Such metal salts include those of mercury, lead, zinc, cadmium, copper, nickel, cobalt, iron, manganese, silver, platinum, palladium, and gold.     

Effects of ammoniation on aflatoxins in rations fed lactating cows

A multifaceted cooperative research program involving industry, government and universities was initiated to determine the effects of feeding lactating dairy cows rations containing various levels of cotton-seed and cottonseed meal that had been naturally contaminated with aflatoxins. Evidence is presented that ammoniation of aflatoxin-contaminated cottonseed and cottonseed meal eliminates the aflatoxins, producing a product safe for feeding to ruminants. The aflatoxin M₁ content of milk samples of individual cows receiving rations containing (a) prime cottonseed meal, (b) aflatoxin contaminated meal, and (c) aflatoxin contaminated meal that had ammoniation treatment is reported. Data comparing results with (d) prime cottonseed, (e) aflatoxin contaminated seed, and (f) aflatoxin-contaminated seed that had ammoniation treatment are also reported. None of the milk samples from cows fed ammoniated rations contained any detectable M₁ by the modified Jacobson et al. methodology used. The sensitibity of the method in this laboratory is 0.1 μg M₁/liter of milk. Under the conditions of this study, aflatoxin M₁ levels are related to the levels of aflatoxin B₁ consumed in the diet of the cows. Conversion ratios are reported. Aflatoxin M₁ levels in the milk, relative to the time of the cows’ initial ingestion of aflatoxin B₁, the persistence of M₁ in the milk after discontinuing ingestion of B₁, and disappearance of M₁ under the conditions of the analytical methodology used relative to storage time and temperatures, are reported for liquid milk and for frozen milk. Milk containing the highest level of aflatoxin M₁ was treated with rennet. An 80:20 partion of aflatoxin M₁ was observed between curd and whey, respectively.     

Methods of dyeing ceramic brick

The results of a study of the possibility of bulk dyeing of ceramic brick by incorporating manganese and iron ore and metallic slags and sludges from electroplating plants in the pastes are reported. It was found that low-melting clays should first be bleached with chalk or fireclay or kaolin impregnated with solutions of transition metal salts in order to attain a broad color scale for the articles. Using natural raw materials and soluble salts of 3d elements significantly expands the raw-materials base, reduces the cost of the ceramic articles by replacing expensive materials, and combines synthesis of pigments and firing of the articles. __________ Translated from Steklo i Keramika, No. 8, pp. 15–18, August, 2007.     

Sequential Fractionation of Cottonseed Meal to Improve Its Wood Adhesive Properties

For better understanding of the adhesive properties of different fractions of cottonseed protein, cottonseed meals from both glanded and glandless cotton varieties were separated into several fractions. Each meal was sequentially extracted with water and 1 M NaCl solution, or with phosphate buffer and NaCl solution. Adhesives were prepared from the recovered fractions and hot-pressed onto maple veneer strips and tested for their properties. The adhesive strength of the water- and buffer-washed solid fractions (i.e., the un-extractable residues of the meals) from the glanded seed ranged from 1.32 to 1.62 MPa and were unchanged or increased compared with the adhesive strength of the original meal that varied from 0.98 and 1.49 MPa. Soaking the wood specimens bonded at 80 °C revealed that the water resistance of these water- and buffer-washed adhesives was significantly improved in that they exhibited no delamination during soaking compared with the meal adhesive that showed some delamination (20–30 % of the samples). Furthermore, the water resistance of these fractions with wet shear strength around 1.5 MPa was comparable to that of cottonseed protein isolate (>90 % protein) when the joints were bonded at 100 °C. The preparations from glandless cottonseed meals showed similar adhesive performances. Additional extraction of the meals with NaCl solution reduced adhesive performance. The results suggest that water- or buffer-washed cottonseed meal fractions can be used as wood adhesives and would be less costly to prepare than cottonseed protein isolates.