The “Charge of the Byte Brigade” and a socio-technical response

We discuss the “Charge of the Byte Brigade”, manifest in the over-emphasis on technological solutions to system design and a set of criticisms levied against humans. Function allocation is central to these issues. We identify a number of different perspectives on the meaning and status of function allocation and outline our own position. This is critical of the field generally, and we argue for a number of actions, not least for a change in name in an attempt to capture a more integrative perspective on socio-technical allocations. Much of what we recommend is concerned with re-branding and re-positioning the content and underlying mindsets of this field of endeavour, and with extending the roles of people working in it. In particular, we argue that socio-technical allocations are central to system design, that we need a more integrated approach to the design and use of systems and that this process should be owned by system managers and users. We argue the need for more research and development, for the development of improved tools to support design, for raising public awareness and for developing new partnerships with relevant stakeholders. In the final part of the paper, we describe our own approach to the development and use of a set of interrelated tools to support socio-technical allocations. Finally, we comment on the existing marginalization of these issues.     

A socio-technical approach to improving the systems development process

Research on improving the systems development processes has primarily focused on mechanisms such as tools, software development methodologies, knowledge sharing and process capabilities. This research has yielded considerable insights into improving the systems development process, but the large majority of information systems development projects still continue to be over budget, late, and ineffective in meeting user needs. Together with the advent of software development moving offshore, or consisting of offshore team members, a more holistic approach is appropriate. Approached from a socio-technical perspective the software development process is viewed as a process embedded in a social and a technical subsystem. Drawing upon socio-technical work design principles, this paper suggests how capabilities of the development process can be improved. Data collected from a survey of software development practices in organizations indicates that organizations at different levels of process capabilities differ in work system characteristics as well as process performance. For example, the use of multi-skilled teams was found to be significantly related to the systems development process maturity level as well as significantly related to all the performance measures studied. This paper provides empirical support for the socio-technical approach and provides a theoretical foundation for designing software process initiatives in organizations.     

基于AADL的IoP系统可靠性评估方法

人联网（IoP）系统的架构复杂且存在海量、实时变化的数据,使得基于IoP系统的可靠性分析变得十分困难,目前仍缺乏一种健全的基于IoP系统的可靠性建模及评估方法。提出一种新型的IoP系统可靠性评估方法,利用AADL及其附件语言对IoP系统进行可靠性建模,并基于该模型从定性角度评估系统故障的根本原因和风险。此外,结合Ocarina模型转换技术提出一种基于连续时间马尔科夫链（CTMC）的定量评估算法,将AADL可靠性模型转换为CTMC模型,实现对系统动态、实时等特性的评估。在此基础上,设计一个IoP系统通用模型,并以此为案例验证所提方法的可行性。实验结果表明,该方法不仅能对IoP系统建模,而且能自动、准确地对其进行可靠性分析,具有良好的应用价值。     

Evaluating expert systems: the socio-technical dimensions of quality

Abstract: In this paper we present a new approach to evaluating expert systems. Our conceptual framework is based on a socio-technical model that spawned some 39 technical and contextual evaluation criteria. These socio-technical dimensions of quality are identified, defined and supported. We suggest that the approach presented here is an alternative to the restrictive verification and validation techniques that seem to be prevalent.     

Moderating effects of localization differences on ERP use: A socio-technical systems perspective

Despite the promised benefits of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems, more than two thirds of ERP system projects result in failure. In this study, we investigate some plausible reasons for their failure from the user’s perspective. Particularly, we propose the socio-technical factors that affect ERP system use. This study has two research objectives. First, it introduces and tests a theoretical model that views ERP systems as both an organizational change driver and a sophisticated information system to explain the phenomenon of ERP system use. For this purpose, the proposed model includes attitude toward change and computer self-efficacy; this may affect ERP system use behavior through perceived usefulness for the systems. Second, this paper attempts to shed some light on how the localization differences of ERP systems may affect users’ intention to use the ERP systems. The results based on survey data using subjects from two different ERP systems support the proposed research model. It identifies the moderating effect of the localization differences. Theoretical and practical implications of the study are discussed along with its limitations.     

The design of intelligent socio-technical systems

The design of intelligent socio-technical systems calls for careful examination of relevant social and organizational concepts. We present a method for supporting this design process, placing emphasis on different levels of formal characterization, with equal attention to both the analysis of concepts in a formal calculus independent of computational concerns, and the representation of concepts in a machine-processable form, fully cognizant of implementation issues—a step in the method we refer to as principled operationalization. There are many tools (i.e. formal languages) that can be used to support the design method; we define and discuss criteria for evaluating such tools. We believe that, were the method proposed to be adopted, it would enhance the state-of-the-art in the systematic design and engineering of socio-technical systems, respecting the fundamentally interdisciplinary nature of those tasks, in both their theoretical and practical dimensions.     

Parameter optimization of distributed hydrological model with a modified dynamically dimensioned search algorithm

A modified version of the dynamically dimensioned search (MDDS) is introduced for automatic calibration of watershed simulation models. The distinguishing feature of the MDDS is that the algorithm makes full use of sensitivity information in the optimization procedure. The Latin hypercube one-factor-at-a-time (LH-OAT) technique is used to calculate the sensitivity information of every parameter in the model. The performance of the MDDS is compared to that of the dynamically dimensioned search (DDS), the DDS identifying only the most sensitive parameters, and the shuffled complex evolution (SCE) method, respectively, for calibration of the easy distributed hydrological model (EasyDHM). The comparisons range from 500 to 5000 model evaluations per optimization trial. The results show the following: the MDDS algorithm outperforms the DDS algorithm, the DDS algorithm identifying the most sensitive parameters, and the SCE algorithm within a specified maximum number of function evaluations (fewer than 5000); the MDDS algorithm shows robustness compared with the DDS algorithm when the maximum number of model evaluations is less than 2500; the advantages of the MDDS algorithm are more obvious for a high-dimensional distributed hydrological model, such as the EasyDHM model; and the optimization results from the MDDS algorithm are not very sensitive to either the variance (between 0.3 and 1) for randn′ used in the MDDS algorithm or the number of strata used in the Latin hypercube (LH) sampling.     

Modelling work distribution mechanisms using Colored Petri Nets

Workflow management systems support business processes and are driven by their models. These models cover different perspectives including the control-flow, resource, and data perspectives. This paper focuses on the resource perspective, i.e., the way the system distributes work based on the structure of the organization and capabilities/qualifications of people. Contemporary workflow management systems offer a wide variety of mechanisms to support the resource perspective. Because the resource perspective is essential for the applicability of such systems, it is important to better understand the mechanisms and their interactions. Our goal is not to evaluate and compare what different systems do, but to understand how they do it. We use Colored Petri Nets (CPNs) to model work distribution mechanisms. First, we provide a basic model that can be seen as a reference model of existing workflow management systems. This model is then extended for three specific systems (Staffware, FileNet, and FLOWer). Moreover, we show how more advanced work distribution mechanisms, referred to as resource patterns, can be modelled and analyzed.     

Towards automated modification of legacy assets

In this paper we argue that there is a necessity for automating modifications to legacy assets. We propose a five layered process for the introduction and employment of tool support that enables automated modification to entire legacy systems. Furthermore, we elaborately discuss each layer on a conceptual level, and we make appropriate references to sources where technical contributions supporting that particular layer can be found. We sketch the perspective that more and more people working in the software engineering area will be contributing to working on existing systems and/or tools to support such work. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Facilitating asynchronous discussions in learning communities: the impact of moderation strategies

A facilitator or moderator is often responsible for supporting processes and their progress in learning communities. In this article we present an approach for supporting moderators of asynchronous processes in learning communities. This approach follows the socio-technical perspective: it includes a theory-based development of moderator tasks and the technical features designed to support these tasks. Starting with relevant work in this area, we describe our approach to moderator support in the collaborative learning environment KOLUMBUS 2. In a qualitative study, a professional moderator facilitated the discussion processes of a group of 12 students based on KOLUMBUS 2. The moderator used different methods and varying levels of participation intervention. The study showed that different intervention strategies led to different levels of student participation and different successes in finding common results at the end of the discussions. Suggestions for the design of technical features are also made.     

An evaluation model for dependability of Internet-scale software on basis of Bayesian Networks and trustworthiness

Internet-scale software becomes more and more important as a mode to construct software systems when Internet is developing rapidly. Internet-scale software comprises a set of widely distributed software entities which are running in open, dynamic and uncontrollable Internet environment. There are several aspects impacting dependability of Internet-scale software, such as technical, organizational, decisional and human aspects. It is very important to evaluate dependability of Internet-scale software by integrating all the aspects and analyzing system architecture from the most foundational elements. However, it is lack of such an evaluation model. An evaluation model of dependability for Internet-scale software on the basis of Bayesian Networks is proposed in this paper. The structure of Internet-scale software is analyzed. An evaluating system of dependability for Internet-scale software is established. It includes static metrics, dynamic metrics, prior metrics and correction metrics. A process of trust attenuation based on assessment is proposed to integrate subjective trust factors and objective dependability factors which impact on system quality. In this paper, a Bayesian Network is build according to the structure analysis. A bottom-up method that use Bayesian reasoning to analyses and calculate entity dependability and integration dependability layer by layer is described. A unified dependability of the whole system is worked out and is corrected by objective data. The analysis of experiment in a real system proves that the model in this paper is capable of evaluating the dependability of Internet-scale software clearly and objectively. Moreover, it offers effective help to the design, development, deployment and assessment of Internet-scale software.     

Modelling domestic water demand: An agent based approach

The urban water system is a complex adaptive system consisting of technical, environmental and social components which interact with each other through time. As such, its investigation requires tools able to model the complete socio-technical system, complementing “infrastructure-centred” approaches. This paper presents a methodology for integrating two modelling tools, a social simulation model and an urban water management tool. An agent based model, the Urban Water Agents' Behaviour, is developed to simulate the domestic water users’ behaviour in response to water demand management measures and is then coupled to the Urban Water Optioneering Tool to calculate the evolution of domestic water demand by simulating the use of water appliances. The proposed methodology is tested using, as a case study, a major period of drought in Athens, Greece. Results suggest that the coupling of the two models provides new functionality for water demand management scenarios assessment by water regulators and companies.     

Exploring the impact of software requirements on system-wide goals: a method using satisfaction arguments and i* goal modelling

This paper describes the application of requirements engineering concepts to support the analysis of the impact of new software systems on system-wide goals. Requirements on a new or revised software component of a socio-technical system not only have implications on the goals of the subsystem itself, but they also impact upon the goals of the existing integrated system. In industries such as air traffic management and healthcare, impacts need to be identified and demonstrated in order to assess concerns such as risk, safety, and accuracy. A method called PiLGRIM was developed which integrates means-end relationships within goal modelling with knowledge associated with the application domain. The relationship between domain knowledge and requirements, as described in a satisfaction argument, adds traceability rationale to help determine the impacts of new requirements across a network of heterogeneous actors. We report procedures that human analysts follow to use the concepts of satisfaction arguments in a software tool for i* goal modelling. Results were demonstrated using models and arguments developed in two case studies, each featuring a distinct socio-technical system??a new controlled airspace infringement detection tool for NATS (the UK??s air navigation service provider), and a new version of the UK??s HIV/AIDS patient reporting system. Results provided evidence towards our claims that the conceptual integration of i* and satisfaction arguments is usable and useful to human analysts, and that the PiLGRIM impact analysis procedures and tool support are effective and scalable to model and analyse large and complex socio-technical systems.     

Innovation in the fringes of software ecosystems: the role of socio-technical generativity*

ABSTRACT

Understanding the way information systems grow and change over time and the role of different contributors in these processes is central to current research on software development and innovation. In relation to this, there is an ongoing discourse on how the attributes of software platforms influence who can innovate on top of them and the kind of innovations possible within the larger ecosystem of technologies and people these platforms are part of. This discourse has paid limited attention to innovation unfolding in the fringes of the ecosystems peripheral to and disconnected from where the central software components are developed and where the resources necessary for digital innovation are scarce. Drawing upon Zittrain’s characteristics of generativity and Lane’s concept of generative relationships, the key contribution of this paper is a socio-technical perspective on innovation and generativity in this setting. We build this perspective of socio-technical generativity based on a case study of software innovation activities in Malawi on top of the health information system software platform DHIS2 developed in Norway. This case illustrates how the technical attributes of the platform played a key role in concert with human relationships in shaping innovation activities in Malawi.     

Towards automated modification of legacy assets

In this paper we argue that there is a necessity for automating modifications to legacy assets. We propose a five layered process for the introduction and employment of tool support that enables automated modification to entire legacy systems. Furthermore, we elaborately discuss each layer on a conceptual level, and we make appropriate references to sources where technical contributions supporting that particular layer can be found. We sketch the perspective that more and more people working in the software engineering area will be contributing to working on existing systems and/or tools to support such work.     

ERP software implementation: an integrative framework

ERP implementation is a socio-technical challenge that requires a fundamentally different outlook from technologically-driven innovation, and will depend on a balanced perspective where the organisation as a total system is considered. ERP implementation is considered to rely on behavioural processes and actions. It is a process that involves macro-implementation at the strategic level, and micro-implementation at the operational level. This therefore means that implementation in the context of ERP systems is not possible through an ON/OFF approach whereby deployment of the new systems will necessarily yield the desired and expected results. Understanding the implementation process through a balanced perspective will therefore prevent any unpleasant surprises, and will ensure and guide the change process to be embedded in a painless fashion. The balanced perspective means that socio-technical considerations must be borne in mind; the strategic, tactical and operational steps clearly defined; and the expected benefits evaluated and tracked through creating seamless and solid integration. This paper proposes an integrative framework for ERP implementation based on an extensive review of the factors and the essential elements that contribute to success in the context of ERP implementation.     

Modelling sustainable development: systems dynamic and input–ouput approaches

This paper discusses alternative approaches to modelling economy–environment systems from the perspective of sustainable development. We distinguish between systems' dynamic methods and economic approaches, including input–output (I/O) models. We then discuss the structure of two models constructed for Scotland. Firstly, a hierarchical, dynamic model is used to look at long-term trends in population, resource use and pollution. Secondly, an environmentally extended I/O model is used to estimate the effects of economic policy and structural change on pollution levels and output. We conclude with some comments on the possible future developments in modelling sustainable development.     

Four integration patterns: a socio-technical approach to integration in IS development projects

This paper aims to contribute to a theory of integration within the field of information systems (IS) project management. Integration is a key IS project management issue when new systems are developed and implemented into an increasingly integrated information infrastructure in corporate and governmental organizations. Expanding the perspective of traditional project management research, we draw extensively on central insights from IS research. Building on socio-technical IS research and software engineering research, we suggest four generic patterns of integration: big bang, stakeholder integration, technical integration and socio-technical integration. We analyse and describe the advantages and disadvantages of each pattern. The four patterns are ideal types. To explore the forces and challenges in these patterns, three longitudinal case studies were conducted. In particular we investigate the management challenges for each pattern. We find that the patterns are context-sensitive and describe the different contexts where the patterns are applicable. For IS project management, the four integration patterns are a contribution to the management of integration risks – extending the vocabulary for assessing and mitigating these risks in IS development. For practitioners the four integration patterns represent an analytical framework to be used in planning modern IS development projects.     

Model-driven assessment of system dependability

Designers of complex real-time systems need to address dependability requirements early on in the development process. This paper presents a model-based approach that allows developers to analyse the dependability of use cases and to discover more reliable and safe ways of designing the interactions of the system with the environment. The hardware design and the dependability of the hardware to be used also needs to be considered. We use a probabilistic extension of statecharts to formally model the interaction requirements defined in the use cases. The model is then evaluated analytically based on the success and failure probabilities of events. The analysis may lead to further refinement of the use cases by introducing detection and recovery measures to ensure dependable system interaction. A visual modelling environment for our extended statecharts formalism supporting automatic probability analysis has been implemented in AToM³, A Tool for Multi-formalism and Meta-Modelling. Our approach is illustrated with an elevator control system case study.