Geospatial modelling of the hydrogen infrastructure in France in order to identify the most suited supply chains

One major issue that is source of uncertainty holding back the hydrogen deployment, is the infrastructure development needs and costs. Different studies in the literature tackled this issue in France but partially, assessing either one part of the hydrogen supply chain or the whole supply chain but for one possible delivery pathway. This paper compares five hydrogen pathways, going from the production step up to the fuelling station and tackling pipeline and truck options. In order to capture the time evolution aspect of the infrastructure deployment needs, three demand scenarios are investigated, going from 1% of market penetration up to 15%. Additionally, two scenarios are taken into account when it comes to the location of the hydrogen production sites vis-à-vis the demand centres. According to the results, economies of scale that can be driven by higher market penetration rates have significant impact on lowering the hydrogen cost.     

Optimisation of the fuelling of hydrogen vehicles using cascade systems and ejectors

The present study investigates the replacement of expansion valves, used in the cascade system of hydrogen fuelling stations, by a series of ejectors. The major advantage of using ejectors is to recover part of the kinetic energy lost during the expansion of a high-pressure primary flow, in order to entrain a lower pressure secondary flow; thus resulting in a more efficient fuelling.Firstly, a quasi-steady 1-D simulation model of the ejector was calibrated using computational fluid dynamics in terms of the main geometry and pressure conditions.Secondly, the quasi-steady 1-D model of the ejector was used in a dynamic model of the hydrogen fuelling station, in order to investigate the influence of its geometry on the transient fuelling performances. Different fuelling scenarios were explored with varying number of buffer tanks in the cascade system of the fuelling station, and different initial pressures in the vehicle's tank. The results show that the replacement of the expansion valve by an ejector may reduce the energy consumption for hydrogen compression by up to 6.5% using two buffer tanks in the cascade system. On the other hand, increasing the number of buffer tanks reduces the energy savings as the driving pressure ratio decreases.     

Large-scale long-distance land-based hydrogen transportation systems: A comparative techno-economic and greenhouse gas emission assessment

Interest in hydrogen as an energy carrier is growing as countries look to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in hard-to-abate sectors. Previous works have focused on hydrogen production, well-to-wheel analysis of fuel cell vehicles, and vehicle refuelling costs and emissions. These studies use high-level estimates for the hydrogen transportation systems that lack sufficient granularity for techno-economic and GHG emissions analysis. In this work, we assess and compare the unit costs and emission footprints (direct and indirect) of 32 systems for hydrogen transportation. Process-based models were used to examine the transportation of pure hydrogen (hydrogen pipeline and truck transport of gaseous and liquified hydrogen), hydrogen-natural gas blends (pipeline), ammonia (pipeline), and liquid organic hydrogen carriers (pipeline and rail). We used sensitivity and uncertainty analyses to determine the parameters impacting the cost and emission estimates. At 1000 km, the pure hydrogen pipelines have a levelized cost of $0.66/kg H₂ and a GHG footprint of 595 gCO₂eq/kg H₂. At 1000 km, ammonia, liquid organic hydrogen carrier, and truck transport scenarios are more than twice as expensive as pure hydrogen pipeline and hythane, and more than 1.5 times as expensive at 3000 km. The GHG emission footprints of pure hydrogen pipeline transport and ammonia transport are comparable, whereas all other transport systems are more than twice as high. These results may be informative for government agencies developing policies around clean hydrogen internationally.     

A multi-objective model for optimizing hydrogen injected-high pressure natural gas pipeline networks

The paper develops a statistical model for optimizing the Hydrogen-injected Natural gas (H-NG) high-pressure pipeline network. Gas hydrodynamic principles are utilized to construct the pipeline and compressor station model. The model developed is implemented on a pipeline grid that is supposed to carry Hydrogen as an energy carrier in a natural gas-carrying pipeline. The paper aims to optimize different objectives using ant colony optimization (ACO). The first objective includes a single objective optimization problem that evaluates the maximum permissible hydrogen amounts blended with natural gas (NG) for a set of pipeline constraints. We also evaluated the variations in operational variables on injecting Hydrogen into the natural gas pipeline networks at varying fractions. The study further develops a multi-objective optimization model that includes bi-objective and tri-objective problems and is optimized using ACO. Traditional studies have focused on single-objective optimization with minimal bi-objective issues. In addition, none of the earlier research has shown the effect of introducing Hydrogen to the NG network using tri-objective function evaluations. The bi-objective and tri-objective functions help evaluate the effect of injecting Hydrogen on different operational parameters. The study further attempts to fill the gap by detailing the modelling equations implemented through a bi-objective and tri-objective function for the H-NG pipeline network and optimized through ACO. Pareto fronts that show the tradeoff between the different objectives for the multi-objective problem have been generated. The primary objective of the bi-objective and tri-objective optimization problems is maximizing hydrogen mole percent in natural gas. The other objective chosen is minimizing compressor fuel consumption and maximizing delivery pressure, throughput, and power delivered at the delivery station. The findings will serve as a roadmap for pipeline operators interested in repurposing natural gas pipeline networks to transport hydrogen and natural gas blend (H-NG) and seeking to reduce carbon intensity per unit of energy-delivered fuel.     

Techno-economic evaluation of two hydrogen supply options to southern Germany: On-site production and import from Portugal

Hydrogen production through electrolysis using renewable electricity is considered a major pathway and component for a sustainable energy system of the future. For this production pathway, a high renewable energy potential, especially in solar energy, is crucial. Countries like Germany with a high energy demand and low solar potential strongly depend on hydrogen import. In the present work, a case study with two alternative hydrogen supply options is conducted to evaluate the economic viability of solar hydrogen delivered to a hydrogen pipeline in Stuttgart, Germany. For both options, hydrogen is generated through an 8 MW alkaline electrolyser, solar powered and supported by grid-based electricity to meet the required load. The first option is based on a hydrogen production system that is positioned in Sines, Portugal, an area with high global radiation and proximity to a deep sea port. The hydrogen is processed by liquefaction and transported to Stuttgart by tanker ship via Hamburg and by truck. The second supply option uses an on-site hydrogen production system in Stuttgart.The work shows that the production costs in Sines with 2.09 €/kgH₂ (prices in €₂₀₂₁) are, as expected, significantly lower than in Stuttgart with 3.24 €/kgH₂. However, this price difference of 1.15 €/kgH₂ for hydrogen production drops to a marginal difference of 0.13 €/kgH₂ when considering the whole value chain to the delivery point in Stuttgart. If the waste heat from electrolysis is used in a district heating system in Stuttgart, the price difference is down to 0.03 €/kgH₂. The first supply option is dominated by costs for processing, especially liquefaction. These costs would need to be reduced to fully exploit the cost advantage of solar hydrogen production in Portugal. Also, a fundamental switch to pipeline transport of gaseous hydrogen should be considered. Both investigated hydrogen supply options show the potential to provide the pipeline in Stuttgart with hydrogen at lower costs than by using the alternative technology of steam reforming of natural gas.     

Determining the lowest-cost hydrogen delivery mode

Hydrogen delivery is a critical contributor to the cost, energy use and emissions associated with hydrogen pathways involving central plant production. The choice of the lowest-cost delivery mode (compressed gas trucks, cryogenic liquid trucks or gas pipelines) will depend upon specific geographic and market characteristics (e.g. city population and radius, population density, size and number of refueling stations and market penetration of fuel cell vehicles). We developed models to characterize delivery distances and to estimate costs, emissions and energy use from various parts of the delivery chain (e.g. compression or liquefaction, delivery and refueling stations). Results show that compressed gas truck delivery is ideal for small stations and very low demand, liquid delivery is ideal for long distance delivery and moderate demand and pipeline delivery is ideal for dense areas with large hydrogen demand.     

Developing an infrastructure for hydrogen vehicles: a Southern California case study

We have examined the technical feasibility and economics of developing a hydrogen vehicle refueling infrastructure for a specific area where zero emission vehicles are being considered, Southern California. Potential hydrogen demands for zero emission vehicles are estimated. We then assess in detail several near term possibilities for producing and delivering gaseous hydrogen transportation fuel including: (1) hydrogen produced from natural gas in a large, centralized steam reforming plant, and truck delivered as a liquid to refueling stations; (2) hydrogen produced in a large, centralized steam reforming plant, and delivered via small scale hydrogen gas pipeline to refueling stations; (3) by-product hydrogen from chemical industry sources; (4) hydrogen produced at the refueling station via small scale steam reforming of natural gas; and (5) hydrogen produced via small scale electrolysis at the refueling station. The capital cost of infrastructure and the delivered cost of hydrogen are estimated for each hydrogen supply option. Hydrogen is compared to other fuels for fuel cell vehicles (methanol, gasoline) in terms of vehicle cost, infrastructure cost and lifecycle cost of transportation. Finally, we discuss possible scenarios for introducing hydrogen as a fuel for fuel cell vehicles.     

Time development of new hydrogen transmission pipeline networks for France

The development of a hydrogen economy will need a transportation infrastructure to deliver hydrogen from production sites to end users. For the specific case of hydrogen, pipelines networks compete with other hydrogen carriers: compressed gas trucks and liquid cryogenic trucks. In this paper, we deal with the determination of the temporal deployment of a new hydrogen transportation infrastructure. Starting from the expected final horizon pipelines network, we propose a backward heuristic approach. The proposed approach is illustrated on a French regional hydrogen transportation network tacking into account two scenarios for hydrogen penetration into the fuel markets. We showed that for the mid term perspective and low market share, the trucks are the most economical options. However, for the long term, the pipeline option is considered as an economical viable option as soon as the hydrogen energy market share for the car fueling market reaches 10%.     

Flexible sector coupling with hydrogen: A climate-friendly fuel supply for road transport

The substantial expansion of renewable energy sources is creating the foundation to successfully transform the German energy sector (the so-called ‘Energiewende’). A by-product of this development is the corresponding capacity demand for the transportation, distribution and storage of energy. Hydrogen produced by electrolysis offers a promising solution to these challenges, although the willingness to invest in hydrogen technologies requires the identification of competitive and climate-friendly pathways in the long run. Therefore, this paper employs a pathway analysis to investigate the use of renewable hydrogen in the German passenger car transportation sector in terms of varying market penetration scenarios for fuel cell-electric vehicles (FCEVs). The investigation focuses on how an H₂ infrastructure can be designed on a national scale with various supply chain networks to establish robust pathways and important technologies, which has not yet been done. Therefore, the study includes all related aspects, from hydrogen production to fueling stations, for a given FCEV market penetration scenario, as well as the CO₂ reduction potential that can be achieved for the transport sector. A total of four scenarios are considered, estimating an FCEV market share of 1–75% by the year 2050. This corresponds to an annual production of 0.02–2.88 million tons of hydrogen. The findings show that the most cost-efficient H₂ supply (well-to-tank: 6.7–7.5 €/kg_H2) can be achieved in high demand scenarios (FCEV market shares of 30% and 75%) through a combination of cavern storage and pipeline transport. For low-demand scenarios, however, technology pathways involving LH₂ and LOHC truck transport represent the most cost-efficient options (well-to-tank: 8.2–11.4 €/kg_H2).     

Life cycle cost analysis: A case study of hydrogen energy application on the Orkney Islands

Hydrogen can compensate for the intermittent nature of some renewable energy sources and encompass the options of supplying renewables to offset the use of fossil fuels. The integrating of hydrogen application into the energy system will change the current energy market. Therefore, this paper deploys the life cycle cost analysis of hydrogen production by polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolysis and applications for electricity and mobility purposes. The hydrogen production process includes electricity generated from wind turbines, PEM electrolyser, hydrogen compression, storage, and distribution by H₂ truck and tube trailer. The hydrogen application process includes PEM fuel cell stacks generating electricity, a H₂ refuelling station supplying hydrogen, and range extender fuel cell electric vehicles (RE-FCEVs). The cost analysis is conducted from a demonstration project of green hydrogen on a remote archipelago. The methodology of life cycle cost is employed to conduct the cost of hydrogen production and application. Five scenarios are developed to compare the cost of hydrogen applications with the conventional energy sources considering CO₂ emission cost. The comparisons show the cost of using hydrogen for energy purposes is still higher than the cost of using fossil fuels. The largest contributor of the cost is the electricity consumption. In the sensitivity analysis, policy supports such as feed-in tariff (FITs) could bring completive of hydrogen with fossil fuels in current energy market.     

Advanced optimal planning for microgrid technologies including hydrogen and mobility at a real microgrid testbed

This paper investigates the optimal planning of microgrids including the hydrogen energy system through mixed-integer linear programming model. A real case study is analyzed by extending the only microgrid lab facility in Austria. The case study considers the hydrogen production via electrolysis, seasonal storage and fueling station for meeting the hydrogen fuel demand of fuel cell vehicles, busses and trucks. The optimization is performed relative to two different reference cases which satisfy the mobility demand by diesel fuel and utility electricity based hydrogen fuel production respectively. The key results indicate that the low emission hydrogen mobility framework is achieved by high share of renewable energy sources and seasonal hydrogen storage in the microgrid. The investment optimization scenarios provide at least 66% and at most 99% carbon emission savings at increased costs of 30% and 100% respectively relative to the costs of the diesel reference case (current situation).     

Hydrogen station evolution towards a poly-generation energy system

The present paper analyzes an innovative energy system based on a hydrogen station, as the core of a smart energy production center, where the produced hydrogen is then used in different hydrogen technologies adopted and installed nearby the station. A case study analysis has been proposed and then investigated, with a station capacity of up to 360 kg of hydrogen daily generated, located close to a University Campus. A hydrogen mobility network has been included, composed of a fuel cell hydrogen fleet of 41 vehicles, 43 bicycles, and 28 fuel cell forklifts. The innovative proposed energy system needs to meet also a power and heat demand for a student housing 5400 m² building of the University Campus. The performance of the system is presented and investigated, including technical and economic analyses, proposing a hydrogen refueling station as an innovative alternative fuel infrastructure, called Multi-modular Hydrogen Energy Station, marking its great potential in future energy scenarios.     

Performance assessment of an electrochemical hydrogen production and storage system for solar hydrogen refueling station

This paper investigates the performance of a hydrogen refueling system that consists of a polymer electrolyte membrane electrolyzer integrated with photovoltaic arrays, and an electrochemical compressor to increase the hydrogen pressure. The energetic and exergetic performance of the hydrogen refueling station is analyzed at different working conditions. The exergy cost of hydrogen production is studied in three different case scenarios; that consist of i) off-grid station with the photovoltaic system and a battery bank to supply the required electric power, ii) on-grid station but the required power is supplied by the electric grid only when solar energy is not available and iii) on-grid station without energy storage. The efficiency of the station significantly increases when the electric grid empowers the system. The maximum energy and exergy efficiencies of the photovoltaic system at solar irradiation of 850 W m-2 are 13.57% and 14.51%, respectively. The exergy cost of hydrogen production in the on-grid station with energy storage is almost 30% higher than the off-grid station. Moreover, the exergy cost of hydrogen in the on-grid station without energy storage is almost 4 times higher than the off-grid station and the energy and exergy efficiencies are considerably higher.     

Comparative study of regulations,codes and standards and practices on hydrogen fuelling stations

This work deals with a comparative study of regulations, codes and standards for hydrogen fuelling station dedicated for light duty land vehicles in the following countries: United States (California), United Kingdom, Italy, Germany, Canada, Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Spain.The following technical components of a hydrogen fuelling station are included in the scope of the study: the hydrogen storage systems (cryogenic or compressed gases) and buffer storage, the compressor stations, the high pressure buffer storage, the cooling systems for hydrogen, the dispensing equipments and the dispensing area. The hydride storage, the pipelines, on site production and the hydrogen vehicle have been excluded.The analysis, performed in September 2014 in a report from INERIS DRA-14-141532-06227C BENCHMARK STATIONS-SERVICE HYDROGENE, is based on documents collected by bibliographic review and information obtained through a questionnaire sent to authorities and IA HySafe [1] members in the above mentioned countries.This paper gives a synthesis of the regulations and on permitting process in the different studied countries (including the new European Directive on the deployment of alternative fuels infrastructure in Europe [2]), it develops the required safety barriers in the different parts of a fuelling station and specially for the dispensing area, gives an overview of the different approaches for safety distances and processes to obtain licences to operate.     

Techno-economical evaluation of a hydrogen refuelling station powered by Wind-PV hybrid power system: A case study for İzmir-Çeşme

Hydrogen fuelling station is an infrastructure for the commercialisation of hydrogen energy utilising fuel cells, particularly, in the automotive sector. Hydrogen fuel produced by renewable sources such as the solar and wind energy can be an alternative fuel to depress the use of fuels based on fossil sources in the transport sector for sustainable clean energy strategy in future. By replacing the primary fuel with hydrogen fuel produced using renewable sources in road transport sector, environmental benefits can be achieved. In the present study, techno-economic analysis of hydrogen refuelling station powered by wind-photovoltaics (PV) hybrid power system to be installed in ?zmir-Çe?me, Turkey is performed. This analysis is carried out to a design of hydrogen refuelling station which is refuelling 25 fuel cell electric vehicles on a daily basis using hybrid optimisation model for electric renewable (HOMER) software. In this study, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) surface meteorology and solar energy database were used. Therefore, the average wind speed during the year was assessed to be 5.72 m/s and the annual average solar irradiation was used to be 5.08 kW h/m²/day for the considered site. According to optimisation results obtained for the proposed configuration, the levelised cost of hydrogen production was found to be US $7.526–7.866/kg in different system configurations. These results show that hydrogen refuelling station powered by renewable energy is economically appropriate for the considered site. It is expected that this study is the pre-feasibility study and obtained results encougare the hydrogen refuelling station to be established in Turkey by inventors or public institutions.     

Operating maps of a combined hydrogen production and power generation system based on aluminum combustion with water

The performance of a novel hydrogen production and energy conversion system based on the aluminum-water reaction is addressed by means of a lumped and distributed parameter numerical approach. The interest on this type of technology arises because of the possibility of obtaining at the same time different secondary energy sources, such as hydrogen and heat and mechanical work, with very low pollutant and greenhouse gas emissions.In this paper the numerical models of the main components adopted in the system are developed, including the combustion chamber, the steam/hydrogen turbine and the heat exchangers. The behavior of the whole system is investigated for different configurations and energy conversion cycles, i.e. electric energy production only and combined heat and power production, in order to determine the operating maps in terms of efficiency, power output, pressure and temperature in the main sections, mass flow rates and the hydrogen yield. The numerical analysis of the thermo-dynamic behavior of the power unit is aimed at assessing the guidelines that will lead to the construction of a first prototype of this system.Finally, the use of a cogeneration system based on the aluminum combustion with water system for on-site small scale hydrogen production for feeding a hydrogen refueling station is explored. The proposed system is compared with other technologies as well as the case of large scale hydrogen production and delivery.     

European energy security: The future of Norwegian natural gas production

The European Union (EU) is expected to meet its future growing demand for natural gas by increased imports. In 2006, Norway had a 21% share of EU gas imports. The Norwegian government has communicated that Norwegian gas production will increase by 25–40% from today's level of about 99 billion cubic meters (bcm)/year. This article shows that only a 20–25% growth of Norwegian gas production is possible due to production from currently existing recoverable reserves and contingent resources. A high and a low production forecast for Norwegian gas production is presented. Norwegian gas production exported by pipeline peaks between 2015 and 2016, with minimum peak production in 2015 at 118 bcm/year and maximum peak production at 127 bcm/year in 2016. By 2030 the pipeline export levels are 94–78 bcm. Total Norwegian gas production peaks between 2015 and 2020, with peak production at 124–135 bcm/year. By 2030 the production is 96–115 bcm/year. The results show that there is a limited potential for increased gas exports from Norway to the EU and that Norwegian gas production is declining by 2030 in all scenarios. Annual Norwegian pipeline gas exports to the EU, by 2030, may even be 20 bcm lower than today's level.     

A comparative techno-economic and quantitative risk analysis of hydrogen delivery infrastructure options

The comparative techno-economic analysis and quantitative risk analysis (QRA) of the hydrogen delivery infrastructure covering the national hydrogen demands are presented to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the infrastructure of commercial hydrogen delivery. The cost calculation model, which was based on the hydrogen delivery scenario analysis model (HDSAM), was employed to estimate the costs of hydrogen fuel delivery in Seoul, Korea, whose area is small enough to not require intermediate delivery stations. The QRA methodology was modified to be suitable for the comparative analysis of the whole hydrogen infrastructure. The capacities of a hydrogen refueling station and the hydrogen market penetration were employed as the main variables and the two scenarios, viz. the gaseous and liquid hydrogen delivery options, were considered. The analysis results indicate that the delivery system of gaseous hydrogen was superior in terms of cost and that of liquid hydrogen was superior in terms of safety. Both delivery options were affected by the capacity of the station and the market penetration, and the cost and risk drastically changed, especially when the two variables were small. Thus, according to the results, the economic and safety issues of the hydrogen delivery infrastructure are critical to achieving a hydrogen energy society.     

The value chain of green hydrogen for fuel cell buses – A case study for the Rhine-Main area in Germany

As an immanent necessity to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions, the energy transition poses a major challenge for the next 30 years, as it includes a cross-sectoral increase of fluctuating renewable energy production, grid extension to meet regional electricity supply and demand as well as an increase of energy storage capacity. Within the power-to-gas concept, hydrogen is considered as one of the most promising solutions.The paper presents a scenario-based bottom-up approach to analyse the hydrogen supply chain to substitute diesel with fuel cell buses in the Rhine-Main area in central Germany for the year 2025. The analysis is based on field data derived from the 6 MW power-to-gas plant “Energiepark Mainz” and the bus demonstration project “H₂-Bus Rhein-Main”. The system is modelled to run simulations on varying demand scenarios. The outcome is minimised hydrogen production costs derived from the optimal scheduling of a power-to-gas plant in terms of the demand. The assessment includes the energy procurement for hydrogen production, different hydrogen delivery options and spatial analysis of potential power-to-gas locations.     

A feasibility analysis of hydrogen delivery system using liquid organic hydrides

The paper discusses the techno-economic feasibility of a hydrogen storage and delivery system using liquid organic hydrides (LOH). Wherein, LOH (particularly cycloalkanes) are used for transporting the hydrogen in chemical bonded form at ambient temperature and pressure. The hydrogen is delivered through a catalytic dehydrogenation process. The aromatics formed in the process are used for carrying more hydrogen by a subsequent hydrogenation reaction. Cost economics were performed on a system which produces 10 kg/h of hydrogen using methylcyclohexane as a carrier. With proprietary catalysts we have demonstrated the possibility of hydrogen storage of 6.8 wt% and 60 kg/m³ of hydrogen on volume basis. The energy balance calculation reveals the ratio of energy transported to energy consumed is about 3.9. Moreover, total carbon footprint calculation for the process of hydrogen delivery including transportation of LOH is also reported. The process can facilitate a saving of 345 tons/year of carbon dioxide emissions per delivery station by replacing gasoline with hydrogen for passenger cars. There is an immense techno-economic potential for the process.