Internal and external factors of competitiveness shaping the future of wooden multistory construction in Finland and Sweden

In transitioning to a renewable material-based bio economy, growing public and industry interest is apparent for using wooden multistory construction (WMC) as a sustainable urban housing solution in Europe, but its business implications are not well understood. In our study, we evaluate, which internal and external factors of competitiveness are shaping the future of WMC, especially in the context of Finland and Sweden. Based on a multi-level perspective of socio-technical transitions, we conducted a three-stage dissensus-based Delphi study. The identified internal and external factors affecting the future competitiveness of the WMC business emphasize the importance of skilled architects and builders and the role of standardized building systems. Based on our results, the key aspects influencing the future competitiveness of WMC in the region are related to the development of technical infrastructure and project-based business networks, while additional changes in regulatory framework are perceived as less important. We conclude that towards 2030, the strong cognitive rules founded in the concrete-based building culture in these countries is likely to inhibit the dynamics of the socio-technical regime level. A change is also needed in the WMC business culture towards more open cross-sectoral collaboration and new business networks between different-sized players.     

Monopolistic competition, increasing returns, agglomeration, and transport costs

This paper presents a model where production concentrated in one place is compared with dispersed production. Concentrated production can attain a higher level of productivity but must incur transport costs. Dispersed production, on the other hand, has a lower productivity level but need no transportation. In order to avoid unnecessary complications, output per capita is used as an objective function. Transport cost is measured in units of output and will therefore affect the objective function directly. The model uses a linkage approach where a final output is produced under constant returns to scale. This production has increasing returns to the number of differentiated inputs. The differentiated intermediate inputs are produced subject to increasing returns to scale in a framework of Chamberlinian monopolistic competition. The size of the market determines the number of intermediate inputs that the local economy can accommodate. In this way the model formalises Adam Smith's theorem on the division of labour being limited by the extent of the market. The paper examines how the break-even point between the two ways of organising production is affected by (i) changes in transport cost and market density and (ii) shifts in technology for producers of intermediaries and the final output. Received: December 1999/Accepted: January 2001     

The reinstatement of fire damaged steel framed structures

The paper examines the factors which can cause steelwork to distort and collapse during fires. In many situations no distortion occurs and the steelwork may be reused.Laboratory based experiments are described in which the strengths of various grades of steel were determined at elevated temperatures. The effects on mechanical properties of heating steelwork to temperatures in the range 100 — 1000°C and cooling back to ambient temperature have also been assessed. It has been shown that mild and microalloyed steels are likely to show distortion or collapse if they are heated to temperatures above 600°C, but no deterioration in mechanical properties occurs on cooling back to room temperature until steel temperatures have exceeded 650 °C.The available data on cast and wrought iron in fires are also summarised; these materials show similar behaviour to that of steels.Metallurgical examinations of several samples retrieved from the frameworks of structures involved in fires are included.Some guidelines are presented describing the major factors to be considered when contemplating the reinstatement of a steel framework after a fire. However, decisions on reinstatement need to be taken in the light of expert engineering and metallurgical advice in each individual case. This paper is intended for guidance purposes only and is not intended to be used as a definitive reference for such decisions.     

A review of electricity markets and reforms in Russia

The power industry in Russia has undergone one of the most ambitious reform programs implemented in the world. This paper reviews the background, targets, and measures taken in the major stages of the reform, outlines the current state of the Russian power sector and analyzes the results of the reform. It is concluded that given the current economic situation to provide large investments, Russian authorities had to undertake some market intervention, which had some side effects on the competitiveness of the market. By 2018, the urgent need for the investment was removed. The authorities have improved some important regulations, while some of the key non-market mechanisms are still maintained.     

Self‐help housing provision: Production,consumption, accumulation and policy in Atlantic Canada

Self‐help has been a neglected aspect of housing provision in industrialised nations, yet in many locations it accounts for a significant share of new production and can contribute to improved housing circumstances for those whose housing need is not too severe. This paper discusses self‐help housing provision in Atlantic Canada and argues that it reduces the profitability of the residential construction industry and for this and other reasons, self‐help is likely to continue as a major form of production. This paper also evaluates the impact on self‐help of several housing policy options.     

A multi-scale, multi-model approach for analyzing the future dynamics of European land use

Europe’s rural areas are expected to witness massive and rapid changes in land use due to changes in demography, global trade, technology and enlargement of the European Union. Changes in demand for agricultural products and agrarian production structure are likely to have a large impact on landscape quality and the value of natural areas. Most studies address these changes either from a macro-economic perspective focusing on changes in the agricultural sector or from a local perspective by analyzing recent changes in landscapes for small case studies. This paper describes a methodology in which a series of models has been used to link global level developments influencing land use to local level impacts. It is argued that such an approach is needed to properly address the processes at different scales that give rise to the land use dynamics in Europe. An extended version of the global economic model (GTAP) and an integrated assessment model (IMAGE) are used to calculate changes in demand for agricultural areas at the country level while a spatially explicit land use change model (CLUE-s) was used to translate these demands to land use patterns at 1 km² resolution. The global economic model ensures an appropriate treatment of macro-economic, demographic and technology developments and changes in agricultural and trade policies influencing the demand and supply for land use related products while the integrated assessment model accounts for changes in productivity as result of climate change and global land allocation. The land use change simulations at a high spatial resolution make use of country specific driving factors that influence the spatial patterns of land use, accounting for the spatial variation in the biophysical and socio-economic environment. Results indicate the large impact abandonment of agricultural land and urbanization may have on future European landscapes. Such results have the potential to support discussions on the future of the rural area and identify hot-spots of landscape change that need specific consideration. The high spatial and thematic resolution of the results allows the assessment of impacts of these changes on different environmental indicators, such as carbon sequestration and biodiversity. The global assessment allows, at the same time, to account for the tradeoffs between impacts in Europe and effects outside Europe.     

Network City: Retrofitting the Perth Metropolitan Region to Facilitate Sustainable Travel

'Network City', the latest 25-year planning strategy for metropolitan Perth, Western Australia, is designed to realise the integration of land use and transport networks within established and new areas. This article examines the influence of urban form on travel patterns and the case for sustainable travel outcomes in order to set in context the 'Network City' concept. The concept is described, and then the article focuses on the operational detail needed to progress towards fuller integration between the transport network and the city it serves. This includes analysis of urban structure in the context of the factors that influence efficient use of public transport: including residential density, intensity of activity and the hierarchy of activity centres. The implications for road planning are discussed where land use-transport integration is the core objective rather than simply traffic efficiency. If sustainable travel is to be facilitated there is a need to change both the operation of public transport and the urban structure and these changes are mutually supportive.     

南京湖南路与夫子庙商业街的商业模式比较及对策研究

商业街是中心城市蓬勃发展的商业模式。南京的商业街建设,在全国有着重要的地位和影响,其中最著名的湖南路和夫子庙商业街,二者的商业模式各有不同。本文就两大商业街的顾客客流量、年龄、职业、学历、月收入等因素的调研数据进行比较,初步探讨二者商业模式的异同,对二者的交通设施、布局功能、发展管理三方面提出改善对策,以及提出错位经营打造生态商业街观点,为今后提升商业街的竞争力具有借鉴指导意义。     

Incorporating agglomeration economies in transport cost-benefit analysis: The case of the proposed light-rail transit in the Tel-Aviv metropolitan area

Abstract.  The economic evaluation of transport projects relies primarily on the impact of the project on road users. Economic benefits are calculated from a reduction in the aggregate value of time saved by the users, as well as from savings on vehicle-operation and maintenance costs, reducion in traffic accidents, and more recently the negative environmental impacts that ensued. Most often the analysis assumes fixed demand. Major mass-transit systems, like the new Light Rail Transit (LRT) currently proposed for the Tel-Aviv Metropolitan Area (TAMA) in Israel, are expected to generate substantial new (induced) traffic. This development will most likely enhance the agglomeration forces at work in major urban concentrations. Agglomeration economies could lead to an upward shift in the production function of the metropolitan area, thus generating substantial additional benefits for the transport project. This article presents the methodology used to estimate the benefits derived from agglomeration economies induced by the aforementioned proposed new LRT in the TAMA. An estimate is made of the increase in the number of employees in the CBD owing to the proposed LRT and their potential contribution to the total annual production of the CBD. Agglomeration economies could add a significant amount of additional benefit to the transport project. In our case study the extent of these benefits increased the benefit-cost ratio from 1.15 to 1.40.     

Modelling the regional economic effects of the Danish Great Belt link

Different approaches to modelling the impact of transport infrastructure investment on regional economic development are examined, including production function and economic potential approaches. An integrated modelling approach involving both transport costs and models of regional and interregional economic structure is advocated. This approach is applied to the question of forecasting the regional economic effects of the Danish Great Belt link, a major Danish infrastructure investment, due to open in 1997. These effects are shown to be modest.     

The regional impacts of Trans-European networks

A key element in the process of European integration is that ofTrans-European Networks which will affect the poorer peripheral states of the existing Community, potential new members in East and Central Europe, but also have considerable significance for the congested central regions. There is a recognition of the need for considerable infrastructural investment, which will have considerable implications for both the inter- and intra-regional distribution of economic activity and which address to two central concerns of cohesion and subsidiarity. This paper examines the scope and nature of the transport TENs proposed and analyses the problems posed by these changes and the options for policy within the EC, especially that on the development of the Community's regions. The paper argues that such an approach requires a careful definition of measures of accessibility which relate to both intra- and inter-regional access; to all modes of transport, reflecting a region's economic structure and transport needs; and to levels of service on infrastructure. It concludes that an increasing emphasis on the Community significance of new transport infrastructure will be needed for both planning and financial reasons, especially given the increasing emphasis on environmental considerations in transport, but that this implies increasing tensions at the regional level which will need to be addressed in the interests of cohesion.This is a revised version of a paper presented to the European Congress, Regional Science Association International, Moscow, 1993. It is based on research funded in part by the UK Economic and Social Research Council Transport and the Environment Programme (Grant L 119251008). The research assistance of Philip Newman is gratefully acknowledged and thanks are due to two referees who provided valuable suggestions to improve the paper.     

Exploring the underlying dimensions of elements affecting traffic congestion relief impact of transit

In this paper a new approach for transit congestion relief measurement in urban areas is described. The paper reviews relevant transport data sources and describes how a comparable international transport database has been selected for this study. The elements affecting the congestion relief impact of public transport in global cities are explored. Factor analysis is used to identify the underlying dimensions of the measured elements from the readily available urban and transport data for a broad international spectrum of cities. The multivariate data analysis manifests three major dimensions of factors affecting congestion relief: (1) transit-oriented factor, (2) car-deterrence factor, and (3) urban-form factor. Finally, by using linear regression analysis, this paper has determined how these three dimensions are related to the congestion relief value of transit. The results of the regression analysis show that all three dimensions positively influence transit congestion relief. Car-deterrence factor has the strongest influence on transit congestion relief, followed by transit-oriented factor and urban-form factor. In addition, the regression model provides a quantitative link between city variables, transport characteristics and transit congestion relief without using comprehensive transport modelling approach. This quantitative link can provide insight to our understanding of the strength of these dimensions to transit congestion relief for urban areas.     

Housing Policy Changes in Ghana in the 1990s

The housing sector in Ghana has undergone fundamental changes since the 1990s. Policy focus has shifted away from direct state provision and has moved strongly towards active private sector participation in housing production, financing and production of building materials. In part, this is due to the failure of public housing programmes, dwindling state resources, unimpressive performance of state-owned enterprises, and recognition that the government alone is unable to solve the housing problem. On a broader scale, the changes are rooted in liberalization ideologies that have swept through most economies in the 1980s and 1990s, which have had varying effects on people's housing need and on the national economy. The purpose of this paper is to examine these effects, to offer some interpretations, and to outline some of the lingering challenges facing the country's housing sector.     

Economic efficiency gains from urban public transport regulatory reform: Two case studies of changes in Europe

The regulatory framework under which the European transport network operates has changed significantly over the last 15 years. At the macro level the creation of the Single European Market has removed many of the institutional impediments to international transportation within European Union. At the meso level national governments have liberalised inter-city transport both by deregulation and privatisation. At the micro level city authorities have acted to introduce greater market incentives in the provision of local public transport. This paper is primarily concerned with the effects on economic efficiency of measures which have resulted in more liberalised markets at the local levels. In particular, it focuses on expanding the relatively scant empirical literature in this field by quantifying the impacts of major regulatory changes in two major European cities. Received: March 1997/Accepted: January 1998     

Radiocesium discharges and subsequent environmental transport at the major US weapons production facilities

Radiocesium is one of the more prevalent radionuclides in the environment as a result of weapons production-related atomic projects in the USA and the former Soviet Union. Radiocesium discharges during the 1950s account for a large fraction of the historical releases from US weapons production facilities. Releases of radiocesium to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems during the early years of nuclear weapons production provided the opportunity to conduct multidisciplinary studies on the transport mechanisms of this potentially hazardous radionuclide. The major US Department of Energy facilities (Oak Ridge Reservation in Tennessee, Hanford Site near Richland, Washington, and Savannah River Site near Aiken, South Carolina, USA) are located in regions of the country that have different geographical characteristics. The facility siting provided diverse backgrounds for the development of an understanding of environmental factors contributing to the fate and transport of radiocesium. In this paper, we summarize the significant environmental releases of radiocesium in the early years of weapons production and then discuss the historically significant transport mechanisms for 137Cs at the three facilities that were part of the US nuclear weapons complex.     

Effects of energy and carbon taxes on building material competitiveness

The relations between building material competitiveness and economic instruments for mitigating climate change are explored in this bottom-up study. The effects of carbon and energy taxes on building material manufacturing cost and total building construction cost are modelled, analysing individual materials as well as comparing a wood-framed building to a reinforced concrete-framed building. The energy balances of producing construction materials made of wood, concrete, steel, and gypsum are described and quantified. For wood lumber, more usable energy is available as biomass residues than is consumed in the processing steps. The quantities of biofuels made available during the production of wood materials are calculated, and the cost differences between using these biofuels and using fossil fuels are shown under various tax regimes. The results indicate that higher energy and carbon taxation rates increase the economic competitiveness of wood construction materials. This is due to both the lower energy cost for material manufacture, and the increased economic value of biomass by-products used to replace fossil fuel.     

The resilience of cities to economic shocks: A tale of four recessions (and the challenge of Brexit)

This paper examines the resilience of British cities to major economic shocks. Using a novel data set for 85 cities, it analyses their resistance to and recovery from the last four major recessions, over the period 1971 to 2015. It reveals a distinct shift in the relation between resistance and recovery between these shocks, as well as major differences between northern and southern cities. Some possible factors shaping these patterns are explored, and tentative estimates of the likely impact of the Brexit shock (Britain's withdrawal from the European Union) are also provided. A key implication is that differences in resilience to major shocks can contribute to the long-run growth paths of cities.     

Recent climate change in the Arctic and its impact on contaminant pathways and interpretation of temporal trend data

The Arctic has undergone dramatic change during the past decade. The observed changes include atmospheric sea-level pressure, wind fields, sea-ice drift, ice cover, length of melt season, change in precipitation patterns, change in hydrology and change in ocean currents and watermass distribution. It is likely that these primary changes have altered the carbon cycle and biological systems, but the difficulty of observing these together with sporadic, incomplete time series makes it difficult to evaluate what the changes have been. Because contaminants enter global systems and transport through air and water, the changes listed above will clearly alter contaminant pathways. Here, we review what is known about recent changes using the Arctic Oscillation as a proxy to help us understand the forms under which global change will be manifest in the Arctic. For Pb, Cd and Zn, the Arctic is likely to become a more effective trap because precipitation is likely to increase. In the case of Cd, the natural cycle in the ocean appears to have a much greater potential to alter exposure than do human releases of this metal. Mercury has an especially complex cycle in the Arctic including a unique scavenging process (mercury depletion events), biomagnifying foodwebs, and chemical transformations such as methylation. The observation that mercury seems to be increasing in a number of aquatic species whereas atmospheric gaseous mercury shows little sign of change suggests that factors related to change in the physical system (ice cover, permafrost degradation, organic carbon cycling) may be more important than human activities. Organochlorine contaminants offer a surprising array of possibilities for changed pathways. To change in precipitation patterns can be added change in ice cover (air-water exchange), change in food webs either from the top down or from the bottom up (biomagnification), change in the organic carbon cycle and change in diets. Perhaps the most interesting possibility, presently difficult to predict, is combination of immune suppression together with expanding ranges of disease vectors. Finally, biotransport through migratory species is exceptionally vulnerable to changes in migration strength or in migration pathway-in the Arctic, change in the distribution of ice and temperature may already have caused such changes. Hydrocarbons, which tend to impact surfaces, will be mostly affected by change in the ice climate (distribution and drift tracks). Perhaps the most dramatic changes will occur because our view of the Arctic Ocean will change as it becomes more amenable to transport, tourism and mineral exploration on the shelves. Radionuclides have tended not to produce a radiological problem in the Arctic; nevertheless one pathway, the ice, remains a risk because it can accrue, concentrate and transport radio-contaminated sediments. This pathway is sensitive to where ice is produced, what the transport pathways of ice are, and where ice is finally melted-all strong candidates for change during the coming century. The changes that have already occurred in the Arctic and those that are projected to occur have an effect on contaminant time series including direct measurements (air, water, biota) or proxies (sediment cores, ice cores, archive material). Although these 'system' changes can alter the flux and concentrations at given sites in a number of obvious ways, they have been all but ignored in the interpretation of such time series. To understand properly what trends mean, especially in complex 'recorders' such as seals, walrus and polar bears, demands a more thorough approach to time series by collecting data in a number of media coherently. Presently, a major reservoir for contaminants and the one most directly connected to biological uptake in species at greatest risk-the ocean-practically lacks such time series.     

Why assess the properties of near-surface concrete?

The deterioration of concrete structures is a major problem in many countries throughout the world. This has prompted the search for methods of predicting the service life of both existing and new structures. Current prediction methods are still in their infancy and, before they can be used with confidence, more reliable information on the properties of the concrete in these structures will be required. In this paper a range of test methods for determining the strength and transport properties and the extent of corrosion are critically reviewed. Whilst all provide useful information the ability to measure the transport properties has been shown by many researchers to give the most reliable indication of the likely durability. In spite of this it is recommended that an holistic overview is adopted as no single test is sufficiently reliable at present. Using such an approach, durability-based design criteria can be developed for concrete and the remaining life of existing structures estimated.