Cinderella after the ball.

In this article I reply to a comment made by S. J. Guastello (see record 2006-00920-013) on my original article, "The Cinderella of Psychology: The Neglect of Motor Control in the Science of Mental Life and Behavior" (see record 2005-05480-002). In my article, I asked why motor control has received short shrift in psychology. I observed that it is ironic that motor control has long had the status of a Cinderella in psychological research given that the main question in motor control is, arguably, the same as the main question in psychology: How do behaviors originate? I offered seven hypotheses for psychology's neglect of motor control. Guastello suggested that these seven hypotheses should be supplanted by three others: (a) the division-of-labor hypothesis, (b) the dumb-experiment hypothesis, and (c) the critical-concepts-were-not-available-until-recently hypothesis. Here I ask, Who is right and does it matter? (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

One-sided limb preference is linked to alternating-limb locomotion in anuran amphibians.

Amphibians provide a unique opportunity for identifying possible links between lateralized behaviors, locomotion, and phylogeny and for addressing the origin of lateralized behaviors of higher vertebrates. Five anuran species with different locomotive habits were tested for forelimb and hind limb preferences during 2 stereotyped behavior sequences-wiping a foreign object off their snout and righting themselves from the overturned position. The experiments were analyzed in a broader context of previous findings on anuran lateralization involving 11 anuran species that were studied within the same experimental paradigms. This analysis shows that one-sided forelimb and hind limb motor lateralization in anurans is strongly associated with alternating-limb locomotion and other unilateral limb activity. Conclusions reached for anuran amphibians may be applicable to other vertebrates possessing paired appendages-the degree of lateralization in motor response depends on the mode of locomotion used by a species. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Structure and irregularity in the spontaneous behavior of young infants.

Persistent, irregular fluctuations in spontaneous motor activity are common in the young of many vertebrate species, but whether the irregularity is intrinsic to the dynamics of motor activation or the result of random perturbations is not known. Analysis of the second-by-second variation in the general body movement of awake human infants 1 and 3 months after birth revealed low dimensional structure in the characteristically irregular motor activity and exponential rates of divergence of initially similar states of motor activation. Results support the conclusion that irregularity is an intrinsic property of the dynamics of motor activation involving relatively few effective degrees of freedom and raise questions about the advantages or disadvantages of irregularity built into early behavioral organization. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gestalt principles in the control of motor action.

We argue that 4 fundamental gestalt phenomena in perception apply to the control of motor action. First, a motor gestalt, like a perceptual gestalt, is holistic in the sense that it is processed as a single unit. This notion is consistent with reaction time results indicating that all gestures for a brief unit of action must be programmed prior to initiation of any part of the movement. Additional reaction time results related to initiation of longer responses are consistent with processing in terms of a sequence of indivisible motor gestalts. Some actions (e.g., many involving coordination of the hands) can be carried out effectively only if represented as a unitary gestalt. Second, a perceptual gestalt is independent of specific sensory receptors, as evidenced by perceptual constancy. In a similar manner a motor gestalt can be represented independently of specific muscular effectors, thereby allowing motor constancy. Third, just as a perceptual pattern (e.g., a Necker cube) is exclusively structured into only 1 of its possible configurations at any moment in time, processing prior to action is limited to 1 motor gestalt. Fourth, grouping in apparent motion leads to stream segregation in visual and auditory perception; this segregation is present in motor action and is dependent on the temporal rate. We discuss congruence of gestalt phenomena across perception and motor action (a) in relation to a unitary perceptual–motor code, (b) with respect to differences in the role of awareness, and (c) in conjunction with separate neural pathways for conscious perception and motor control. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Anticipated model consequences, model affect, and imitation.

60 3rd and 4th graders individually observed a videotaped adult who either encouraged or prohibited a model's play with toys while he was gone; after the adult's departure, the model performed 6 distinctive play behaviors and exhibited a grin, frown, or blank stare following each play response. Analysis of variance revealed that anticipated-reward Ss surpassed anticipated-punishment Ss on 4 measures: number of imitative responses, number of different imitative responses, duration of imitative play, and number of nonimitative responses with toys not used by the model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Implicit Motor Learning in Parkinson's Disease.

Objective: This study examined whether disruption of performance is moderated in Parkinson's disease (PD) patients who acquire their motor behaviors in an implicit manner. Method: Twenty-seven patients with PD learned a hammering task in errorless (implicit) or errorful (explicit) conditions and were tested for robustness of motor performance under a secondary task load, which required them to continuously count backward as they performed the hammering task. Results: Patients in the errorless (implicit) motor learning condition exhibited robustness to secondary task loading, whereas patients in the errorful (explicit) motor learning condition did not. Conclusions: Implicit motor learning techniques should be considered by PD rehabilitation specialists in cases in which existing disruption to movements is exacerbated by conscious control. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hysteresis effects in a motor task with cotton-top tamarins (Sanguinus oedipus).

The way human adults grasp an object is influenced by their recent history of motor actions. Previously executed grasps are often more likely to reoccur on subsequent grasps. This type of hysteresis effect has been incorporated into cognitive models of motor planning, suggesting that when planning movements, individuals tend to reuse recently used plans rather than generating new plans from scratch. To the best of our knowledge, the phylogenetic roots of this phenomenon have not been investigated. Here, the authors asked whether 6 cotton-top tamarin monkeys (Saguinus oedipus) would demonstrate a hysteresis effect on a reaching task. The authors tested the monkeys by placing marshmallow pieces within grasping distance of a hole through which the monkeys could reach. On subsequent trials, the marshmallow position changed such that it progressed in an arc in either a clockwise or counterclockwise direction. The authors asked whether the transition point in right- versus left-handed reaches would differ depending on the direction of the progression. The data supported this hysteresis prediction. The outcome provides additional support for the notion that human motor planning strategies may have a lengthy evolutionary history. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A Comparison of GluR-A-Deficient and Wild-Type Mice on a Test Battery Assessing Sensorimotor, Affective, and Cognitive Behaviors.

Previous studies have demonstrated a spatial working memory deficit in glutamate receptor (GluR)-A (GluR1) AMPA receptor subunit knockout mice. The present study evaluated male and female wild-type and GluR-A/ mice on a test battery that assessed sensorimotor, affective, and cognitive behaviors. Results revealed a behavioral phenotype more extensive than previously described. GluR-A/ mice were hyperactive, displayed a subtle lack of motor coordination, and were generally more anxious than wild-type controls. In addition, they showed a deficit in spontaneous alternation, consistent with previous reports of a role for GluR-A-dependent plasticity in hippocampus-dependent, spatial working memory. Although changes in motor coordination or anxiety cannot explain the dissociations already reported within the spatial memory domain, it is clear that they could significantly affect interpretation of results obtained in other kinds of behavioral tasks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of peripheral and motivational cues on rigid–flexible functioning: Perceptual, behavioral, and cognitive aspects.

Recent research has shown that performing approach versus avoidance behaviors (arm flexion vs. extension) effectively influences cognitive functioning. In another area, lateralized peripheral activations (left vs. right side) of the motivational systems of approach versus avoidance were linked to various performances in cognitive tasks. By combining these 2 avenues of research, the influence of motor behaviors on flexible thinking was examined through the use of lateralized approach or/and avoidance behaviors. In 5 experiments reported in this article, a combination of the laterality and arm flexion versus extension variables successfully determined flexibility–rigidity functioning, consistent with the motor congruence hypothesis (J. Cretenet & V. Dru, 2004). Through these experiments, this result has been replicated with perceptual, behavioral, and cognitive aspects of flexibility, contributing to a better understanding of the relationships between bodily components, affect, and cognition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Bring it on: Angry facial expressions potentiate approach-motivated motor behavior.

Although many psychological models suggest that human beings are invariably motivated to avoid negative stimuli, more recent theories suggest that people are frequently motivated to approach angering social challenges in order to confront and overcome them. To examine these models, the current investigation sought to determine whether angry facial expressions potentiate approach-motivated motor behaviors. Across 3 studies, individuals were faster to initiate approach movements toward angry facial expressions than to initiate avoidance movements away from such facial expressions. This approach advantage differed significantly from participants’ responses to both emotionally neutral (Studies 1 & 3) and fearful (Study 2) facial expressions. Furthermore, this pattern was most apparent when physical approach appeared to be effective in overcoming the social challenge posed by angry facial expressions (Study 3). The results are discussed in terms of the processes underlying anger-related approach motivation and the conditions under which they are likely to arise. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cannabis and motor function: fMRI changes following 28 days of discontinuation.

The authors hypothesized that supplementary motor cortex (SMA) and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) activation in chronic cannabis users, studied 4 to 36 hours after their last episode of use, would disappear by Day 28 of abstinence during finger-tapping tests. Eleven cannabis users and 16 comparison subjects were scanned during right (RFT) and left (LFT) finger-tapping tasks on a GE 1.5 Tesla scanner retrofitted with a whole body echo planar coil. Image analyses were conducted in SPM99 using an ROI approach to define each Brodmann area (BA). Differences in cerebral activation were examined in the left and right primary motor cortex (BA4), SMA (BA6), and ACC (BA24 and BA32 separately). The authors found diminished activation for contralateral BA6 from Day 0 to Day 28. For LFT, the authors also found: ipsilaterally diminished BA6 activation on Day 7, but not Day 0 or Day 28; ipsilaterally diminished BA32 activation on Day 0, but not Day 7 or Day 28; contralaterally diminished BA 4 activation on Day 28, but not Day 0 or Day 7; and contralaterally diminished BA32 activation on Day 0 and Day 28, but not Day 7. For RFT, the authors found ipsilaterally diminished BA32 activation on Days 0 and 7 but not on Day 28; contralaterally diminished BA32 activation on Days 0, 7, and 28; and ipsilaterally diminished BA6 activation on Days 0, 7, and 28. These results suggest that residual diminished brain activation is still observed after discontinuing cannabis use in motor cortical circuits. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

大型冷连轧机电机能力选择技术分析

讨论了大型冷连轧机电机转矩工作特性,对电机能力不足进行了详细的分析,提出了提高电机能力的3种方法:提高电机功率,降低电机基本速度和提高齿轮比,并对它们进行了分析比较.在新建冷连轧机电机能力选择时,充分考虑了电机功率、基本转速、齿轮比等因素,提出了电机能力不仅仅指电机功率,更要考虑电机能输出的最大转矩这一关键点,避免了电机能力的不足问题.     

Imitative response tendencies in patients with frontal brain lesions.

It is widely accepted that patients with frontal lesions have problems inhibiting automatic response tendencies. Whereas inhibition deficits of overlearned responses have been extensively investigated using interference tasks like the Stroop task (J. R. Stroop, 1935), it is controversial whether patients with frontal brain lesions also have problems inhibiting imitative responses. Using an interference paradigm, the present study investigated imitative response tendencies in patients with frontal lesions. In addition, it tested whether patients deficient in the inhibition of imitative responses correspondingly have problems inhibiting overlearned responses. It was found that the group with frontal lesions displayed significantly stronger imitative response tendencies than the group with nonfrontal lesions. Furthermore, it was shown that the inhibition of imitative responses is functionally unrelated to Stroop interference. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Cinderella of Psychology: The Neglect of Motor Control in the Science of Mental Life and Behavior.

One would expect psychology--the science of mental life and behavior--to place great emphasis on the means by which mental life is behaviorally expressed. Surprisingly, however, the study of how decisions are enacted--the focus of motor control research--has received little attention in psychology. This article documents the neglect and considers possible reasons for it. The hypotheses considered include three that are raised and then rejected: (a) no famous psychologists have studied motor control, (b) cognitive psychologists are mainly interested in uniquely human functions, and (c) motor control is simply too hard to study. Three other hypotheses are more viable: (d) cognitive psychologists have been more interested in epistemology than in action, (e) psychologists have disfavored motor control because overt responses were the only admissible measure in behaviorism, and (f) psychologists have felt that neuroscientists have the market cornered when it comes to motor control research. There are signs that motor control's Cinderella status is changing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

智能马达控制器在翻车机中的应用

翻车机是启动频繁的大型卸车设备。本文介绍了以智能马达控制器ＳＭＣ组成的翻车机控制系统的功能、控制原理、控制主回路等。该系统结构简单、启动平稳、定位准确，对车辆及机械设备的冲击小。     

Dissociating local and global levels of perceptuo-motor control in masked priming.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 33(3) of Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance (see record 2007-07213-006). Figure 5 was inadvertently duplicated in the production process and was incorrectly substituted in place of the original Figure 6 submitted by the authors. The correct figure and caption that should have appeared for Figure 6 are listed in the erratum.] Masked prime stimuli presented near the threshold of conscious awareness affect responses to subsequent targets. The direction of these priming effects depends on the interval between masked prime and target. With short intervals, benefits for compatible trials (primes and targets mapped to the same response) and costs for incompatible trials are observed. This pattern reverses with longer intervals. We argue (a) that these effects reflect the initial activation and subsequent self-inhibition of the primed response, and the corresponding inhibition and subsequent disinhibition of the nonprimed response, and (b) that they are generated at dissociable local (within response channels) and global (between channels) levels of motor control. In two experiments, global-level priming effects were modulated by changing the number of response alternatives, whereas local-level effects remained unaffected. These experiments suggest that low-level motor control mechanisms can be successfully decomposed into separable subcomponents, operating at different levels within the motor system. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Action semantic knowledge about objects is supported by functional motor activation.

The present study assessed the functional organization of action semantics by asking subjects to categorize pictures of an actor holding objects with a correct or incorrect grip at either a correct or incorrect goal location. Overall, reaction times were slower if the object was presented with an inappropriate posture, and this effect was stronger for goal violations compared with grip violations (Experiment 1). In addition, the retrieval of action semantics was found accompanied by the implicit activation of motor representations. Body-related objects (e.g., cup) were classified faster when a movement toward the subject’s body was required, whereas world-related objects (e.g., pincers) were responded to faster with a movement in the opposite direction (Experiments 2 and 3). In contrast, when subjects were required to retrieve only visual semantics (Experiment 4), no interference effects of postural information were observed, and motor representations were only partially activated. These findings suggest that action semantics can be accessed independently from visual semantics and that the retrieval of action semantics is supported by functional motor activation reflecting the prototypical use of an object. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Deciding how to act is not achieved by watching mental movies.

In the early days of research on visual imagery, it was believed that visual images are like pictures in one’s head. Only as the field matured did it come to be appreciated that visual images do not bear a first-order isomorphic relation to visual percepts. Now that the early days of research on motor imagery are coming to an end, it is important to ask whether motor images bear a first-order isomorphic relation to movements. We asked whether they do by focusing on internal simulations for motor planning. Our participants indicated which of two possible actions they preferred either by performing the preferred action or by indicating which action they would prefer to perform. We reasoned that if internal simulations of physical actions bear a first-order isomorphic relation to actual physical actions, the choices would be the same in the two conditions. They were not. We discuss the reasons for this outcome, including the adaptive advantage of a representational system for action which, like the representational system for vision, does not bear a first-order isomorphic relation to its external analog. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How similar are motor imagery and movement?

It has been suggested that motor imagery (MI) has the basic components of real motion. This possibility was tested here in 17 healthy volunteers studied while performing or imaging a fast sequence of finger movements of progressive complexity, a fast and precise extension of the arm to touch a small circle with the tip of a pencil, a periodic repetitive flexion-extension of the index finger at a specified rate, and a velocity-regulated continuous rotary movement of the right hand. Motor sequences of 4 to 5 fingers showed a real-virtual congruency similar to that previously reported with other equivalent tests, but it decreased in the simplest sequences performed with 1 to 2 fingers. A more marked decrease of real-virtual congruency was found in the experimental paradigm aimed at producing movements with a pre-specified velocity, which was low for rhythmic movements of the index finger and practically absent in the continuous rotary movements of the hand. Present data show that the ability of MI to produce "realistic" simulations of motion is not the same for all motor tasks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expression of the mitotic motor protein Eg5 in postmitotic neurons: implications for neuronal development

It is well established that the microtubules of the mitotic spindle are organized by a variety of motor proteins, and it appears that the same motors or closely related variants organize microtubules in the postmitotic neuron. Specifically, cytoplasmic dynein and the kinesin-related motor known as CHO1/MKLP1 are used within the mitotic spindle, and recent studies suggest that they are also essential for the establishment of the axonal and dendritic microtubule arrays of the neuron. Other motors are required to tightly regulate microtubule behaviors in the mitotic spindle, and it is attractive to speculate that these motors might also help to regulate microtubule behaviors in the neuron. Here we show that a homolog of the mitotic kinesin-related motor known as Eg5 continues to be expressed in rodent neurons well after their terminal mitotic division. In neurons, Eg5 is directly associated with the microtubule array and is enriched within the distal regions of developing processes. This distal enrichment is transient, and typically lost after a process has been clearly defined as an axon or a dendrite. Strong expression can resume later in development, and if so, the protein concentrates within newly forming sprouts at the distal tips of dendrites. We suggest that Eg5 generates forces that help to regulate microtubule behaviors within the distal tips of developing axons and dendrites.