Water and Energy Relations in Lithuania

Water and energy links have changed considerably over the course of the centuries. Since ancient times water has been used in Lithuania for domestic needs (preparing meals, thirst slaking and hygienic necessities) and in agriculture for watering plants, etc. When handicrafts and industries began to develop, water power was used for working purposes: to turn the wheels of mills, sawmills' mechanisms and wool-carding workshop equipment and later to generate electricity. The first small hydropower plant started working in 1900. In 1935 there were 96 small hydropower plants or mixed hydrostations from 309 electricity-producing ones. In the Soviet period (1940-90) water and energy links quickly changed and their development on a large scale depended on the general needs of the Soviet empire. An attempt is made in the paper to discuss briefly the development of water and energy relations in the fields of electricity production, dam quality, water use and wastewater treatment, polder systems and irrigation during the last decade in Lithuania.     

Spatial and temporal variations of Limnothrissa miodon stocks and their stability in Lake Kivu

Limnothrissa miodon is a small pelagic clupeid that was introduced into Lake Kivu in the late 1950s to fill an empty niche. Since then, it has become the main fishery in the lake. The fish stocks were estimated by hydroacoustics between 2012 and 2018 to provide information on the fishery in the current context of changing environmental factors. The main objectives were to determine the most appropriate season for assessing stock dynamics, to characterize temporal and spatial distribution in L. miodon populations and to compare with previous surveys to help predict status of its stocks. The fish size distribution showed that the long dry season was the most appropriate season for assessing the stocks, as it provides information of recruitment for the year. The south and west basins always had higher densities (1.23 m²/ha) and biomass (21–22.7 kg/ha) than the north basins (0.62–0.77 m²/ha; 15.3–16.5 kg/ha). The stock showed declining trend from 7,000 t in 1985 to 1,000 t in 2012 and thereafter consistently increased to 4,000 t in 2018. This last value is similar to previous estimates of 1990s and 2008, showing that the stocks of L. miodon are stable. The low 2012 values could be due to particular environmental conditions in 2012–2014, when there was a shift from diatoms and cyanobacteria to green algae. There is therefore a need to combine high-quality environmental data with fishery surveys to better understand the dynamic of fish and fishery especially under the increasing influence of climate change on lake productivity processes.     

Irrigation energy use and related greenhouse gas emissions of maize production in Mexico

Maize is the most important crop grown in Mexico, with more than one-third of total production coming from irrigated fields. We compute irrigation energy use and associated greenhouse gas emissions of different irrigated maize systems in Mexico. Calculations were based on National Agriculture and Forestry Census 2007 microdata, irrigation water requirements estimated from state-level climate data, and energy and emission coefficients from the literature. Weighted average irrigation energy and related emissions are in the range of 1.0–31.6 GJ/ha and 62.0–2,019.9 kg CO₂e/ha, respectively, while country-scale estimates amount to 4.8 PJ and 305.2 Gg CO₂e.     

Multi-Criteria Evaluation of Small-Scale Sprinkler Irrigation Systems Using Grey Relational Analysis

The technical and socioeconomic evaluation of small-scale sprinkler irrigation systems is a multi-criteria problem characterized by complexity and uncertainty. In order to solve that, the application of Grey Relational Analysis (GRA) was presented. An evaluation model with ten sub-criteria under four groups, namely, technical, economic, environmental and social, was established. Among the criteria, calculation method of labor use in the small-scale sprinkler systems was originally addressed, and Life Cycle Cost (LCC) was used as an economic indicator. In the design of GRA, a combination weighting method based on Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) and entropy measurement was employed to take into account the experts’ knowledge and the inherent information in the experimental data. Six irrigation systems for three field sizes 0.5 ha, 2 ha and 5 ha respectively were considered to verify the model. The systems were optimized with Genetic Algorithms (GAs) first to figure out the optimal combinations of sprinklers and pipes and further, field tests were performed. The discussions show that: the developed approach has successfully provided the ranking of systems for three field sizes. When different types of sprinklers are used, the criteria including atomize index, application efficiency and specific energy consumption change greatly. And the ownership cost, particularly the energy consumption fee, accounts for the largest part of LCC in most of the systems. In comparison, System 5 and System 1 are generally the best. The evaluation model solved by GRA integrated with GAs is effective and can be extended to the comprehensive evaluation and optimization of other irrigation systems.     

Water-saving strategies for irrigation agriculture in Saudi Arabia

Agriculture policy changes in Saudi Arabia are investigated by water footprint (WF) assessment. WF is calculated with the model SPARE:WATER for 3758 irrigated sites. The WF of agriculture areas (WF_area, km³ yr^?1) has decreased (–17%) since the year 2000 to 13.84 km³ yr^?1 (2011), which is mainly caused by the reduction of cropland by –33%. Nevertheless, water consumption per field has increased about 16%, which can be attributed to the cultivation of fodder crops (+12%). A scenario analysis revealed that a shifting cropping pattern towards less fodder crops reduces WF_area by –15%, and implementing improved irrigation technology leads to a combined reduction of up to 32%     

Assessing the economic impact of a low-cost water-saving irrigation technology in Indian Punjab: the tensiometer

ABSTRACT

This article assesses the impact of the tensiometer on the consumption of groundwater and electric power in paddy cultivation in Indian Punjab, and its subsequent economic benefits. We find that compared to the continuous flooding method, the tensiometer-based application of irrigation reduces water and power consumption by 13%, cutting variable costs by 7% without any yield penalty. If 30% of the paddy area is irrigated following tensiometer-based schedules, then the state could save a total of 0.67 million ha m of water and 1516 million kWh of electric power in 2010–2025, with aggregate economic benefits of US$ 459 million.     

Groundwater depletion and water extraction cost: some evidence from South India

From less than 6 million ha in 1950–51, groundwater-irrigated area increased to about 45 million ha in 2010–11, which is over 62% of India's net irrigated area. But the rapid development of groundwater has brought many negative outcomes for farmers. An attempt is made in this study to find out the losers and gainers of groundwater irrigation using survey data on 234 dug-well- and bore-well-owning farmers selected from two regions having different agro-economic settings in the Pudukkottai District of Tamil Nadu, a state in South India. The study shows that the dug-well- and bore-well-owning farmers had to incur a huge additional cost on account of modifications of wells in order to keep up with the falling water level. The modification cost alone accounted for about 33–48% of the real capital of bore-wells. The pumping cost of water is found to be higher for bore-wells fitted with submersible pump-sets as compared to deep bore-wells fitted with submersible pump-sets.     

Development of Medium-size Canal Irrigation in West Central India

ABSTRACT

The City of San Diego, California, U.S.A. with a regional metropolitan area population of 2.5 million, which is expected to double by the turn of the centuiy, looks to recycling raw sewage as an exploratory model to help meet future water needs as traditional water resources diminish.

The City is studying aquaculture sewage treatment, augmented by ultra filtration, reverse osmosis, and carbon adsorption treatment. A pilot plant with a capacity for 25,000 GPD (94,000 l/d)? to 50,000 GPD (188,000 l/d) is operational and a 1.0 MGD (3.8 Ml/d) prototype is under construction, making this the largest system of its kind in the world.

By-products of the aquaculture program, also under investigation, include fuel, animal fodder, agricultural soil “composi”, and commercial fishery potential.

The initial results are highly promising, indicating that the process may be cost effective, energy self-sufficient, except for the reverse osmosis process, and offers an innovative technological breakthrough augmenting conventional sewage treatment, traditional water supplies, and common sources of food, feed and energy.     

Phosphorus loading and ecological impacts from agricultural tile drains in a west Michigan watershed

Phosphorus (P) loading from nonpoint sources is often implicated as a contributing factor to the proliferation of algal blooms in freshwater ecosystems. However, the influence of subsurface tile drains as a source of P, especially in agricultural areas, has received limited attention. We examined the importance of tile drain effluent in the Macatawa Watershed; this watershed is dominated by row crop agriculture and drains into hypereutrophic Lake Macatawa, which connects to Lake Michigan. Our objectives were twofold: 1) assess the importance of tile drain effluent as a source of P in the Macatawa Watershed by measuring tile drain P concentrations spatially and temporally over a one-year period; and 2) assess the ability of tile drain effluent to stimulate algal blooms using bioassays with natural phytoplankton communities. During March 2015–February 2016, P concentrations varied significantly among sample sites (SRP: < 0.005 to 0.447 mg/L; TP: 0.010 to 0.560 mg/L), and the highest P loads occurred during the non-growing season. Annual SRP yields from the tile drain sample sites ranged from 0.002 kg/ha to 0.248 kg/ha, and annual TP yields ranged from 0.003 kg/ha to 0.322 kg/ha. SRP, on average, accounted for 60% of TP, and the SRP:TP ratio measured at the tile drain outlets was positively correlated with area drained by the tile system. Algal bioassays failed to find a positive relationship between chlorophyll a and tile drain SRP; algal community structure was dominated by diatoms, not by cyanobacteria, as expected.     

Crop Water Productivity of Irrigated Teff in a Water Stressed Region

In water stressed regions such as the Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia, increasing Crop Water Productivity (CWP) is imperative for sustainable food and water security. This paper presents CWP of Teff (Eragrostic Tef), a staple food in Ethiopia and an important export crop. Field experiments were conducted under irrigated agriculture during the dry seasons in the periods: 1) November 2010 to March 2011; and 2) December 2011 to April, 2012 at Melkassa Agricultural Research Centre in Ethiopia. Teff crop was irrigated at sixteen different water application depths ranging from 100 to 25 % of the optimum Crop Water Evapotranspiration (ETc.) during the four growing stages, the initial, development, mid season and late season. The effect of seeding rates of 25 kg/ha and 10 kg/ha on lodging and yield of the crop was also determined. The main results were: 1) At 25 % deficit irrigation applied for the whole growth period, Teff CWP was the highest at 1.16 and 1.08 kg/m³ respectively for the seeding rates of 25 kg/ha and 10 kg/ha; 2) the CWP slightly decreased to 1.12 and 1.07 kg/m³ when the 25 % deficit was applied during the late season stage; 3) the crop yield response factor (K_y) of 1.09 and 1.19 was obtained for seeding rates of 25 kg/ha and 10 kg/ha respectively; the equivalent biomass response factor (K_y) was less at 0.88 and 0.96 respectively.     

Multiple Water Use Protocols in Integrated Farming System for Enhancing Productivity

Agriculture is the largest consumer of water in world. Due to demand of water for industrial and drinking purposes, the share of available water resources in agriculture sector is reducing substantially in near future. However, the food, fodder, fuel, and fibre production for satisfying the demands of enhanced population requires more water. In this scenario, increasing water productivity through diversified farming system has been identified as one of the viable options. Diversified farming, otherwise also called integrated farming system (IFS), represents integration of various enterprises such as cropping systems, horticulture, animal husbandry, fishery, agro-forestry, apiary etc. for optimal utilization of farm resources besides water. Integrated farming, a judicious mix of cropping systems suited to given agro-climatic conditions and socio-economic status of the farmers, shall be able to generate additional employment and income for the small and marginal farmers under both rain-fed and irrigated environment. Although, IFS was mainly initiated in Asian agriculture, it is being introduced in almost all the countries of world. Such a system results in more rationale use of water with judicious distribution among different users. In this paper, different aspects of multiple uses of water for higher productivity and future strategies for enhancing water productivity are discussed.     

Otolith chemistry as a fisheries management tool after flooding: The case of Missouri River gizzard shad

Reduced river–floodplain connectivity can decrease fisheries production and cause ecological and socioeconomic consequences. In 2011, the largest flood on record in the Missouri River since 1898 nearly eliminated connectivity between an embayment (Hipple Lake) and Lake Sharpe, impeding movement of walleye (Sander vitreus) and a forage fish, gizzard shad (Dorosoma cepedianum). Thus, we used otolith chemistry to quantify Hipple Lake's natal contribution to Lake Sharpe's gizzard shad population and forecast effects of connectivity loss on the reservoir's socioeconomically important walleye fishery. Fish were classified to natal habitats with 79–89% accuracy, with most gizzard shad (64%) hatching in floodplain habitats (i.e., embayments, tributaries, canals, and stilling basins). Hipple Lake contributed 12% of gizzard shad to Lake Sharpe, more than a tributary (4%) and embayment (0%) but less than a canal (27%) and stilling basin (21%). Hipple Lake (178 acres) covers 0.31% of Lake Sharpe (56,884 acres), so its natal contribution is 38 times what would be expected if contribution was linearly related to area. Sediment and water management to maintain connectivity between Lake Sharpe and Hipple Lake and other floodplain habitats is important for continued gizzard shad production and prey supply for the walleye fishery. Otolith chemistry facilitates assessment of gizzard shad natal contributions in different habitats, serving as a fisheries management tool to inform floodplain habitat protection and rehabilitation after floods.     

Can Sub-Saharan Africa feed itself? The role of irrigation development in the region’s drylands for food security

ABSTRACT

This paper assesses the potential role of investments in irrigation in Sub-Saharan Africa in improving food security and self-sufficiency in the region. Focusing on the region’s drylands, the study identifies a potential for expanded irrigated area of 6–14 million hectares (ha), depending on technology costs and other factors. Linkage of these results with a global agricultural trade model shows that accelerated irrigation investment can effectively reduce growing food import dependency from 54% under a business-as-usual scenario to a much smaller 17–40%; and can also reduce the population at risk of hunger and child under-nutrition.     

Stocking wild adult Florida largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides floridanus): An additional fish management tool

Stocking of largemouth bass is an important management tool for fish management. The stocking of hatchery‐produced fingerling or advanced‐fingerling bass to supplement bass year‐classes, however, has exhibited varying success. Utilizing a different approach, a multiyear stocking programme using wild adult largemouth bass was initiated at the Harris Chain of Lakes (3800 ha Lake Griffin; 1811 ha Lake Dora) in central Florida. Wild adult bass (24 781 fish), ranging in size from 200 mm total length (TL) to over 600 mm TL, were stocked in Lake Griffin (13 932 fish) and Lake Dora (10 849 fish). One month after stocking, the number of stocked bass caught in electrofishing catches in Lake Griffin and Lake Dora was ~10% and 22%, respectively. Estimates of mortality were similar to the native largemouth bass, although the movement of stocked fish into other connecting water bodies was extensive. For the Lake Griffin/Lake Dora stocking programme, bass were transferred at a cost of $10.09–19.89 per fish, depending on how the costs of the project are calculated ($250 000 for just the capture and transport of the fish vs. $492 775 for the total project). Considering only capture and transport costs, conservative benefit/cost ratio estimates would be $1.77/$1.00 spent for replacement and $1.85/$1.00 spent recreational costs, although the benefit/cost ratios could exceed $10/$1. Based on the present study, stocking wild adult largemouth bass is a cost‐effective tool for managing largemouth bass.     

Determining the efficacy of microsatellite DNA-based mixed stock analysis of Lake Michigan's Lake Whitefish commercial Fishery

Management of commercially exploited fish should be conducted at the stock level. If a mixed stock fishery exists, a comprehensive mixed stock analysis is required for stock-based management. The lake whitefish Coregonus clupeaformis comprises the primary commercial fishery across the Great Lakes. Recent research resolved that six genetic stocks of lake whitefish were present in Lake Michigan, and long-term tagging data indicate that Lake Michigan's lake whitefish commercial fishery is a mixed stock fishery. The objective of this research was to determine the usefulness of microsatellite data for conducting comprehensive mixed stock analyses of the Lake Michigan lake whitefish commercial fishery. We used the individual assignment method as implemented in the program ONCOR to determine the accuracy level at which microsatellite data can reliably identify component populations or stocks. Self-assignment of lake whitefish to their population and stock of origin ranged from > 96% to 100%. Evaluation of genetic stock discreteness indicated a moderately high degree of correct assignment (average = 75%); simulations indicated supplementing baseline data by ～ 50 to 100 individuals could increase accuracy by up to 4.5%. Simulated mixed stock commercial harvests with known stock composition showed a high degree of correct proportional assignment between observed and predicted harvest values. These data suggest that a comprehensive mixed stock analysis of Lake Michigan's lake whitefish commercial fishery is viable and would provide valuable information for improving management.     

Influence of Topography,Peak Demand,and Topology on Energy Use Patterns in four Small to Medium-Sized Systems in Ontario,Canada

The aim of this paper is to characterize the relationship between system characteristics of topography, peak demand, and topology and the energy dynamics of four small to medium-sized water distribution systems in Ontario, Canada. First, previously developed energy indicators were used to evaluate and compare the energy efficiency, energy lost to friction, energy lost to leakage, and the surplus energy of the four systems. The systems had a high energy efficiency ranging from 75 to 94% (leak-free) and 58–70% (leaky). Friction losses comprised 3–22% of the total energy input to the systems. Energy lost to leakage comprised 23–26% of total energy input to the systems. Second, hypothesis testing was used to identify statistically significant correlations between system characteristics and energy use patterns in the system. No statistically significant correlation was found between the standard deviation of node elevation and energy use in the four systems. Hydraulic redundancy and energy use did not have a statistically significant correlation. This is because during a ‘typical’ day of service, the most efficient flow paths are concentrated through the trunk mains rather than in the smaller distribution mains that account for most of the looping and hydraulic redundancy of a system. Correlations between peak hour factor and the energy indicators were near the cut-off p-value level (p < 0.05) so it was not clear if the correlations are statistically significant. Despite this, moderate to high Spearman rank correlation coefficients (?0.6 to +0.8) were calculated for the leaky and leak-free systems.     

Quantifying and managing urban water-related energy use systemically: case study lessons from Australia

Abstract

In this paper, three Australian case studies contribute to improved understanding of water-related energy quantification and management. A systems analysis of urban water in South East Queensland (Case Study 1) demonstrates the energy impact of water end use. In Melbourne (Case Study 2), water–energy interlinkages are explored within households. Finally, Case Study 3 in Sydney shows how abatement curves can help guide management action. Collectively, the case studies provide new information for least-cost solutions and simultaneous water and energy efficiency. The work highlights the need for frameworks to characterize and evaluate both the direct and indirect energy influences of urban water.     

Organochlorine Pesticides,PBBs, And Mercury in Round Whitefish Fillets from Saginaw Bay,Lake Huron, 1977–1978

Successful development of a commercial, small-mesh trap net fishery for round whitefish (Prosopium cylindraceum) in Saginaw Bay, Lake Huron, prompted analysis of round whitefish fillets for selected contaminants [dieldrin, dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane and metabolites (DDT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), chlordane, methyl mercury, and total mercury] to determine the fish's suitability for human consumption. Concentrations of all contaminants measured in 1977–1978 were below U. S. Food and Drug Administration action guidelines for fish; PBBs were below detection limits (0.001 mg/kg) for all fillets analyzed. Only PCBs and total DDT residues displayed a strong direct relationship with fish length. Fillets from males consistently exhibited higher mean concentrations of contaminants than did females. No changes in contaminant levels with season were observed.     

Domestic water access and pricing in urban areas of Mozambique: between equity and cost recovery for the provision of a vital resource

This article first presents the urban domestic water access situation in Mozambique. Then it analyzes the country's tariff system as a tool to recover water supply costs and to secure equity and affordability for the urban households served. The analysis focused on those households with in-dwelling water access (less than 50% of the urban population in Mozambique). Urban families using 5 m³, 10 m³, and 15 m³ of in-dwelling piped water per month pay an average of USD 0.86, 0.74, and 0.76 per m³, respectively. At the national level, cost recovery is an issue because in most urban areas operation and maintenance costs are not fully covered. The average coverage ratio for the country is 0.85. The presented figures indicate that a revision of the water tariffs currently applied in Mozambique could help improve equity, affordability and cost recovery.     

Integrated Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System Based RUSLE Modelling for Estimation of Soil Loss in Western Himalaya,India

Soil loss due to water erosion was estimated in Kangra region of western Himalaya using revised universal soil loss equation modelling (RUSLE) in conjunction with Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS). The various parameters such as rainfall erosivity (R), soil erodibility (K), topographic factor (LS), crop management factor (C) and support practice factor (P) were derived using standard techniques. The study revealed that forest cover, crop land and scrub/grass land constitute 87.4 % of soil erosion susceptible area. The rate of depletion of soil was estimated at 25.63 t/ha/yr. It was highest in stony/barren land (60.3 t/ha/yr) and lowest in case of tea garden (16.09 t/ha/yr). It was felt that there is a need of implementation of soil and water conservation measures in the region to curb the soil loss. The undulating nature of terrain was observed as the main contributing factor for soil erosion. It was concluded that RS and GIS based RUSLE model can be efficiently used in mountainous regions to determine the status and extent of soil erosion.