Development of reduced saturated fat cookie fillings using multicomponent oleogels

Cookie fillings are typically composed of sugar (60%–80%) and fat (20%–40%). The fat in these fillings is known as shortening, which currently has high levels of saturated fatty acids (SFA) and, in some cases, trans fatty acids (TFA). This makes the nutritional profile of this product a reason for concern, especially considering that the target audience for cookies is children. This study thus aimed to replace the commercial shortening in these fillings with oleogels made of soybean oil (SB) and high oleic sunflower oil (SF) structured with candelilla wax (CLX), monoglycerides (MG), and hard fat (HF), in different concentrations ranging from 5%–10% of the total structuring content. The complete replacement of shortening with oleogel reduced the amount of TFA by 100% and the amount of SFA by 50%–80%. The quantities of MG and HF greatly influenced the structuring of the product because the higher the concentrations (≥3%), the better the formation of the structured network, with good aeration, greater hardness, and less oil loss, compared with the standard with shortening. The samples that achieved physical properties similar to those of the control sample were samples 3:3:3 and 1:4:5 (CLX:MG:HF). These showed similar oil loss at T0 (~4.5%), and microstructure before and after temperature oscillations and closer consistency (~400 gF/cm²) and adhesiveness (50 gF. s) to the RP (800 gF/cm² and 75 gF. s). Although MG and HF are not good structuring elements alone as the CLX, they formed a network that is connected by hydrogen bonds with the sugar molecules that were resistant to stirring and thermal changes, which makes this system a potential replacement for shortenings in cookie fillings application.     

The Effect of Addition of High-Melting Monoacylglycerol and Candelilla Wax on Pea and Faba Bean Protein Foam-Templated Oleogelation

Use of oleogels prepared from hydrocolloids has recently gained considerable attention as an alternative for trans and saturated fats. Lately, pulse proteins such as faba bean protein and pea protein have been successfully used to prepare oleogels using a foam-templated approach. Although the pulse proteins are healthy oleogelators, high oil loss and low quality of cake baked using pulse protein-stabilized oleogels due to its poor rheological properties challenged its use. The present study explored whether the addition of small amount of high-melting monoglyceride (MAG) or candelilla wax (CW) can be used to improve the oil binding capacity, rheological properties, and baking qualities of pulse protein-stabilized oleogels composed of 5% faba bean or pea protein concentrate with 0.25% xanthan gum foams. Different concentrations (0.5–3%) of MAG or CW were dissolved in canola oil at 80 °C, followed by addition into the freeze-dried protein-polysaccharide foams (pH 7) and quickly transferred to a refrigerator to facilitate the formation of oleogels. The crystallized additives were found to be reinforcing the protein foam network in the oleogels. With increase in concentration of CW and MAG, the oil binding capacity, firmness, cohesiveness, and storage moduli of the oleogels were increased. Oleogels with and without MAG or CW were then characterized and tested for their performance as a shortening replacer in model baked cakes. Findings showed improved textural properties of cake upon addition of MAG in the foam-templated oleogels, however, compared to the shortening, negative effect on cake hardness and chewiness was still observed with the oleogels.     

Effect of oil unsaturation and wax composition on stability,properties and food applicability of oleogels

Oleogelation is emerging as one of the most exigent oil structuring technique. The main objective of this study was to formulate and characterize rice bran/sunflower wax-based oleogels using eight refined food grade oils such as sunflower oil, mustard oil, soybean oil, sesame oil, groundnut oil, rice bran oil, palm oil, and coconut oil. Stability and properties of these oleogels with respect to oil unsaturation and wax composition were explored. Sunflower wax exhibited excellent gelation ability even at 1%–1.5% (w/v) concentration compared to rice bran wax (8%–10% w/v). As the oleogelator concentration increased, peak melting temperature also increased with increase in strength of oleogels as per rheological studies. X-ray diffraction and morphological studies revealed that oleogel microstructure has major influence of wax composition only. Sunflower wax oleogels unveiled rapid crystal formation with maximum oil binding capacity of 99.46% in highly unsaturated sunflower oil with maximum polyunsaturated fatty acid content. Further, the applicability of this wax based oleogels as solid fat substitute in marketed butter products was also scrutinized. The lowest value of solid fat content (SFC) in oleogel was 0.20% at 25°C, resembling closely with the marketed butter products. With increase in oil unsaturation, oleogels displayed remarkable reduction in SFC. Depending upon prerequisite, oleogel properties can be modulated by tuning wax type and oil unsaturation. In conclusion, this wax-based oleogel can be used as solid fat substitute in food products with extensive applications in other fields too.     

Physical Properties of Soybean Oleogels and Oil Migration Evaluation in Model Praline System

The present study examined the physical properties of soybean oleogels and commercial confectionery filling fats and evaluated the oil migration properties in model praline systems. Soybean oleogels were prepared using different oleogelators namely monoglyceride (MAG oleogels) and a mixture of sorbitan tri‐stearate (STS) with lecithin (50:50) (Lec‐STS oleogels). Both MAG oleogels and Lec‐STS oleogels demonstrated a flat solid fat content (SFC) profile with zero SFC at 40 °C. At low temperature, MAG oleogels and Lec‐STS oleogels demonstrated a non‐flowing gel‐like property due to the ability of the oleogelator to entrap liquid oil. In addition, oleogels also showed thixotropic behavior indicating the possible capability to prevent migration of filling fats to coatings and also good flow ability during pumping though manufacturing equipment. The textural property of oleogels also did not change significantly upon storage indicating good structural stability. When used as in a model praline system, oleogels demonstrated a migration delaying property.     

Structuring of Chicken Fat by Monoacylglycerols

In this study, we investigated the effect of monoacylglycerol (MAG) as a structuring agent on the physicochemical, microstructure and rheological properties of chicken fat. The fatty acid composition, oxidative stability, free fatty acids (FFA), slip melting point (SMP), solid fat content (SFC), kinetics of crystallization, microstructure and rheological properties of the samples were evaluated. The addition of MAG at a 0.5 % level did not affect the fatty acid composition, induction period of oxidation at 110 °C (IP_ox110), SFC curve or rheological properties of chicken fat (p > 0.05). However, structured samples containing 3.0 and 5.0 % MAG had higher saturated fatty acid (SFA) content, SFC, SMP, FFA content and IP_ox110 (p < 0.05). The addition of MAG led to a reduction in the IP of oxidation at 60 °C (IP_ox60) and increased the oxidation rate of fats, as measured by the Schaal oven test. Samples containing 3–5 % MAG had higher SFC content, higher loss, storage and complex moduli, higher complex viscosity, and a lower induction period of crystallization (IP_cryst) and tan δ than chicken fat. Investigations by polarized light microscopy confirmed the presence of increased crystal content in samples containing higher MAG levels. These results show that structured chicken fats have the potential for application in the production of soft tub margarine and Iranian vanaspati.     

Evaluating the Oil‐Gelling Properties of Natural Waxes in Rice Bran Oil: Rheological,Thermal, and Microstructural Study

The main objective of this research was to enhance the understanding of the oil‐structuring properties of natural waxes. A number of natural food‐grade waxes were evaluated for their oil‐gelling properties using a combination of techniques, including rheology, differential scanning calorimetry, and polarized light microscopy. Based on the rheological measurements (oscillatory, flow, and thixotropic behavior), we found that rice bran wax, carnauba Brazilian wax and fruit wax showed weak gelling behavior in rice bran oil (prepared at concentrations as high as 5 % w/w), exhibiting relative low elastic moduli that displayed a high frequency dependency. On the contrary, carnauba wild wax, berry wax, candelilla wax, beeswax, and sunflower wax were efficient oleogelators forming strong gels at concentration of <2 % w/w. We attempt to explain these observed differences in gelling behavior by crystal morphology, network formation, and the final amount of crystalline phase.     

Physical Properties of Rice Bran Wax in Bulk and Organogels

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), optical microscopy, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were used to examine the thermal behavior, crystal structure, and crystal morphology of rice bran wax (RBX) in bulk and oil–wax mixtures, and to compare them with those of carnauba wax (CRX) and candellila wax (CLX). The RBX employed in the present study was separated from rice bran oil by winterization, filtration, refinement, bleaching, and deodorization. The RBX crystals melted in the bulk state at 77–79 °C with ΔH _melting = 190.5 J/g, which is quite large compared with CLX (129 J/g) and CRX (137.6 J/g). XRD data of the RBX crystals revealed O_⊥ subcell packing and a long spacing value of 6.9 nm. Thin long needle-shaped crystals were observed in the mixtures of RBX and liquid oils [olive oil and salad oil (canola:soy bean oil = 50:50)]; therefore, the dispersion of RBX crystals in these liquid oils was much finer than that of CRX and CLX crystals. Organogels formed when the mixture of every plant wax and liquid oil was melted at elevated temperature and cooled to ambient temperature. However, the mixture of RBX and olive oil at a concentration ratio of 1:99 wt.% formed an organogel at 20 °C, whereas the lowest concentration necessary for CRX to form an organogel in olive oil was 4 wt.% and that for CLX was 2 wt.%. Observation of the rate of gel formation using DSC and viscosity measurements indicated that the gel structure formed soon after RBX crystallized, whereas a time delay was observed between the organogel formation and wax crystallization of CRX and CLX. These results demonstrate RBX’s good organogel-forming properties, mostly because of its fine dispersion of long needle like crystals in liquid oil phases.     

Effects of Fats and Oils on Rheological, Fatty Acid Profile and Quality Characteristics of South Indian Parotta

Keeping in view the present day demand for foods with healthy fats, the effect of different fats namely hydrogenated fat (HF) and bakery fat (BF); oils—sunflower oil (SFO), soyabean oil (SBO), olive oil (OLO), palm oil (POO) and coconut oil (CNO) separately at the level of 7.5 % on the rheological, fatty acid profile and quality characteristics of parotta was studied. Addition of fats and oils decreased Farinograph water absorption, Amylograph peak viscosity, Alveograph resistance of dough to deformation and increased average abscissa at rupture. In the micrographs of parotta dough with fats, the protein matrix appeared thick and intact, whereas in the case of parotta dough with oils the protein matrix appeared slightly less intact. The spread ratio and overall quality of parotta with oils were higher than fats. The highest overall quality score was observed for parotta with OLO, followed in decreasing order by SFO, SBO, CNO, POO, HF and BF. Determination of fatty acid profile showed that the parottas with fats contained a high amount of trans fatty acids (TFA), while parottas with oils had no TFA. During storage up to 48 h, the parottas with oils remained softer than the parottas with fats.     

Healthier lipid combination oil‐in‐water emulsions prepared with various protein systems: an approach for development of functional meat products

Five protein‐stabilized oil‐in‐water emulsions were prepared using sodium caseinate (O/SC), soy protein isolate (O/SPI), sodium caseinate and microbial transglutaminase (O/SC + MTG), sodium caseinate, microbial transglutaminase and meat slurry (O/SC + MTG + MS) and SPI, sodium caseinate and microbial transglutaminase (O/IPS + SC + MTG); their composition (proximate analysis and fatty acid profile) and physicochemical characteristics were examined. The lipid phase was a combination of healthy fatty acids from olive, linseed and fish oils, containing low proportions (15%) of saturated fatty acids (SFA) and high proportions of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA, 47%) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA, 36%), with a PUFA/SFA ratio >2, and a n‐6/n‐3 PUFA ratio of 0.4. All the oil‐in‐water emulsions showed high thermal and creamy stability. Results of penetration test and dynamic rheological properties showed la existencia de different types of oil‐in‐water emulsion structures according to stabilizing system of emulsion. Those structures ranged from concentrate solution‐like (stabilized only with SC) (gel strength 0.06 mJ) to gel‐like (samples containing MTG) behaviours (gel strength ranged between 3.4 and 6.2 mJ). Morphological differences in the organization of the network structure were observed (by scanning electron microscopy) as functions of the protein system used to stabilize the oil‐in‐water emulsions.     

Rheological study of organoclays prepared from Indian bentonite: Effect of dispersing methods

Rheological properties of the organoclays prepared by cation exchange reaction of Indian bentonite with quaternary ammonium compounds viz. Hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide, N-cetylpyridinium chloride and Stearyldimethylbenzylammonium chloride have been investigated. The basal spacing, particle size and bulk density of organoclays were affected by the chain length and/or carbon content (organic density) of quaternary ammonium compounds. The rheological behavior study revealed that all the toluene–organoclay-dispersions exhibited shear-thinning flow behavior, degree of shear-thinning, stability of the gel structures and yield stress. The incorporation of a mixture of 5 vol.% of H₂O in methanol as polar activator studied in the range of 33 to 100 wt.% of organoclay reinforced the rheological properties, viscosity and gel volume, and the degree of shear-thinning, stability of the gel structures and yield stress of the toluene–organoclay-dispersions. The organoclays with polar activator having 65 wt.% concentration exhibited optimum rheological reinforcement. The rheological properties were found to be more enhanced by ultrasonication relative to conventional stirring/shearing. Power-law and Casson equations have been used to describe the rheological properties of toluene–organoclay-dispersions.     

Lipase-catalyzed synthesis of monoacylglycerides by glycerolysis of campher tree seed oil and cocoa-butter

The lipase-catalyzed glycerolysis of Campher tree seed oil and Cocoa-butter in a solid-phase system was studied. Lipases from Pseudomonas cepacia (PCL) and Chromobacterium viscosum (CVL) were considered as suitable for the synthesis of monoacylglycerols (MAG). The glycerolysis of Campher tree seed oil was performed initially at 25°C followed by cooling to 7°C. This resulted in 86% (PCL) and 90% (CVL) MAG. Maximum concentration of MAG from Cocoa-butter was 89% with both lipases, when the reaction was performed at 25°C. Isolation of MAG was performed by extraction with chloroform at 4°C followed by purification via silica gel chromatography.     

Characterization and comparison of oleogels and emulgels prepared from Schizochytrium algal oil using monolaurin and MAG/DAG as gelators

Oleogels and emulgels were developed with winterized algal oil from Schizochytrium spp. rich in ω-3 fatty acids (FAs) to overcome physical limitations of using a highly unsaturated lipid source in food applications. Both gel types were developed using monolaurin or a combination of mono- and diacylglycerols (MAG/DAG) as the gelator at concentrations of 8%, 10%, or 12% (w/w) in oil or emulsion. A 30-day oxidation study was conducted using peroxide value, p-Anisidine value, and change in FA composition to measure the level of oxidation. Oleogel and emulgel samples exhibited a higher oxidative stability than bulk algal oil and oil-in-water emulsion as control groups, respectively. The 12% monolaurin oleogel outperformed others in oxidative stability, preventing oxidation of approximately 11.66% and 7.86% of EPA and DHA, respectively, compared to algal oil. Physical characteristics including thermal behavior, solid fat content (SFC), rheology, morphology, and polymorphism were studied. Results indicated that MAG/DAG oleogels and monolaurin emulgels were the most physically stable. The SFC of 12% MAG/DAG oleogel at 30°C was 10.27% whereas 12% monolaurin oleogel was only 4.51%. Both gel types developed with monolaurin and MAG/DAG could be used for different applications as they exhibited desirable qualities such as oxidative stability and improved physical characteristics.     

A Novel Propolis Wax-Based Organogel: Effect of Oil Type on Its Formation,Crystal Structure and Thermal Properties

In this work, the potential application of propolis wax (PW) as a novel organogelator was investigated in different oils (canola, sesame, sunflower and flaxseed oil). PW at 2% (w/w) concentration produced a thick organogel at 5, 10 and 15 °C, with needle‐like crystals, suggesting that PW is a relatively efficient structuring agent for organogel formation. The oil binding capacity of the organogel with canola oil was lower than that of the other organogels, and the gelling time of flaxseed organogel with lower oil viscosity was shorter. The X‐ray diffraction measurements of the crystals showed β′‐form crystals, with no influence of oil type. In FTIR results, no chemical intermolecular interactions that were observed indicated physical bonds in the organogel network. DSC analysis was carried out to obtain greater insight into the thermal behavior of PW organogels. No significant differences were observed. The textural properties of PW organogels were stable over 30 days of storage. Flaxseed oil organogel had the greatest firmness and stickiness. These results showed the effect of oil viscosity on PW gel behavior.     

Physicochemical Properties of Foam‐Templated Oleogel Based on Gelatin and Xanthan Gum

In this paper, gelatin and xanthan are applied to produce a foam‐templated oleogel. For this reason, the oleogel is prepared at different concentrations of biopolymers and the properties of solution, cryogel, and related oleogel are determined. The results show that xanthan addition increases viscosity and foam stability of solution. Also, an increment in biopolymer concentration increases cryogel network density (ND) and firmness but has no significant effect on moisture sorption. The oil binding capacity of all oleogels is >92%. In terms of high foam stability (96.87 ± 4.42), low ND (0.016 ± 0.00), and consequently suitable oil sorption (46.10 ± 4.40), the oleogel containing 3% gelatin and 0.2% xanthan is selected as the best sample. Complementary tests exhibit that the oleogel, with thixotropic behavior and 60% structural recovery, can bind the oil at temperature <100 °C. The oleogel network can protect the edible oil from oxidative reaction during 2 month storage. Nonetheless, more studies are needed to attest the application of this oleogel type in food products. Practical Application: Biopolymers of gelatin and xanthan are GRAS and available so that they are applied in many food products. This research shows that the cryogel of these biopolymers, as a hydrophilic oleogelator, can be utilized to structure oil and produce oleogel in an indirect method. This procedure that forms strong gel and keeps oil even at high temperatures can be of interest to scientists who are searching for solid fat substitutes in food products such as cakes, biscuits, and muffins.     

Effect of storage time on the mechanical and microstructural properties of bigels based on xanthan gum and castor oil

As biphasic systems bigels are formed by hydrogels and organogels. Given their characteristics, they have been studied in food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic applications for bioactives delivery. The rheological characteristics and amount used of the individual structured systems influence the final properties; thus, the objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of the proportion of castor oil organogel, the concentration of organogelator, and the storage time in the mechanical and microstructural properties of bigeles. Bigels were prepared from structured castor oil organogels with monoacylglycerides at concentrations of 6% (MOG) and 6.5% (HOG) wt/wt, and hydrogels with 2% wt/wt xanthan gum (HG) at three organogel/hydrogel ratios 15 of 85, 30 of 70, and 45 of 55. Bigels were characterized by optical microscopy with polarized light filter, centrifugal stability, texture, and rheology for 60 days. The increase in the proportion of organogel favors the mechanical response (k, G₀, and firmness) of bigels. The high viscosity of castor oil slows down the structuring of organogel droplets, showing an improvement in its mechanical properties after 15 days of its preparation. The increase in the organogelator concentration is significant in the bigels with 30% and 45% proportions of organogel in the rheological tests. By using HOG in the formation of bigels, higher values for G₀ and k were obtained, as well as higher centrifugal stability compared with bigels formed from MOG. The rheological and microstructural behavior of bigels can be modified according to their application by varying the proportions of organogel/hydrogel and the concentration of the organogelator.     

Enzymatic Production of Monoacylglycerols (MAG) and Diacylglycerols (DAG) from Fish Oil in a Solvent-Free System

Mono- (MAG) and diacylglycerols (DAG) are of nutritional interest. MAG and DAG containing eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic (DHA) acids were produced in a solvent-free system via glycerolysis of menhaden oil catalyzed by Novozym 435. The effect of the molar ratio of glycerol to oil, enzyme concentration, and reaction temperature on MAG and DAG production was assessed. The optimal temperature was in the range of 55–70 °C for production of both acylglycerols. The increase in the substrates molar ratio led to a decrease in MAG and DAG content. The enzyme concentration was fixed at the lowest level evaluated (5%, by weight of substrates). High content of MAG (25% by weight) and DAG (41% by weight) containing, respectively, 12.46% EPA and 11.16% DHA, and 14.57% EPA and 13.70% DHA, were produced after 24 h at 70 °C, with 5% of lipase (by weight of substrate) and a glycerol-to-oil molar ratio of 1:1. For this reaction, a molar triacylglycerol (TAG) conversion of about 60% was achieved at equilibrium (10 h).     

纳米二氧化硅对卡波姆凝胶流变行为的影响

采用红外光谱(FTIR)和扫描电子显微镜(SEM)分析了气相法二氧化硅(FS)和沉淀法二氧化硅(PS)的表面性质,结果表明,FS表面比PS含有更多的羟基,在水中分散性更好。利用流变仪对比研究了FS和PS对卡波姆956凝胶流变行为的影响规律,结果表明,FS和PS的加入均能明显提高卡波姆凝胶的弹性模量、屈服应力、触变性等流变学性质;在纳米二氧化硅质量百分数≤4%,FS在卡波姆凝胶中分散粒径较小且更均匀,其对上述流变学性质的增强作用大于PS;纳米二氧化硅质量分数从4%增大到8%时,PS形成大团聚体,能更好地提高上述流变学性质。结合SEM的测试结果阐明了FS与PS同卡波姆之间不同的相互作用方式。     

High yield of monoacylglycerols production through low‐temperature chemical and enzymatic glycerolysis

The present study aimed to produce MAG through low‐temperature chemical glycerolysis. Over 80% MAG yield with 97% TAG conversion was obtained within short reaction times at temperature of 35–55°C, when tert‐butanol (TB) or tert‐pentanol (TP) was used as reaction medium and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) as catalyst. TB gave a faster reaction rate than TP. Catalysts were important for the low‐temperature chemical glycerolysis reaction. Of the eight common base catalysts evaluated, only NaOH and potassium hydroxide (KOH) were effective, and NaOH was better than KOH. Reaction parameters were studied and optimized. The optimum conditions were TB dosage 3:1 (TB to oil in weight ratio), NaOH concentration 0.45 wt% based on oil, molar ratio of glycerol to oil 5:1. Under these conditions, similar MAG yield and TAG conversion was also observed by Novozym 435 catalyzed glycerolysis, however, a 4 h reaction was required. Practical applications: The process of NaOH catalyzed chemical glycerolysis for MAG production in TB solvent system described in this study provides several advantages including short reaction time and high product yield, which is potential for industrial considerations.     

Characterization of Oleogels Based on Waxes and Their Hydrolyzates

In this paper, the structuring of liquid oils, also known as oleogelation, is systematically investigated for the first time using a quasi-quaternary mixing system approach. Native waxes with different quantities of wax esters (WE), n-alkanes (hydrocarbons (HC)), fatty acids (FA), and fatty alcohols (FaOH) are applied in mixtures with hydrolyzed waxes to systematically change the composition. Hydrolyzed waxes contain high levels of FA and FaOH. The model systems are investigated on microscopic level (brightfield light microscopy (BFM), cryogenic scanning electron microscopy (cryo-SEM)) as well as on their macroscopic properties (rheology, gel hardness) and calorimetric behavior (differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)). It is found that sunflower wax (SFW)-based gels (12% structurant) become less hard on any admixture. Beeswax (BW)-based gels show significant increases in hardness when 25% and 50% (w/w) hydrolyzate are admixed. This could be related to stepwise crystallization. Further analysis reveals that the dissolution/melting behavior of the wax ester mixtures can be surprisingly well described as ideal solubility of a single pseudocomponent. The approach to unravel the individual contributions of the different species present in waxes is successful and marks a first step to better understand the systematic of wax functionality as oleogelators. Practical Application: The substitution of hardstock fats in structured oil phases is of interest for two reasons. The improved nutritional profile oleogels offer are beneficial for public health while the elimination of palm oil based ingredients appears to be a general public desire. Among the technical solutions for non-TAG oil structuring waxes are very promising. This is primarily due to their availability, prior consumption, potentially low cost for functionality. Currently waxes are technically and scientifically wrongly treated as single components. In order to better utilize the potential of waxes and design future sourcing strategies it is necessary to understand the wax functionality at a compositional/molecular level. This contribution marks the first step into this direction by considering classes of molecules with respect to their contribution to functionality. This understanding is considered as a key for future compositional design.     

Hydrogels Based on Pullulan Crosslinked with sodium trimetaphosphate (STMP): Rheological study

Summary Hydrogels from pullulan crosslinked with sodium trimetaphosphate (STMP) under alkaline condition have been investigated by rheological measurements. The influence of reagents concentration (pullulan, STMP, NaOH) on kinetics of reaction and rheological properties is reported. Increasing concentrations of any reagents lead to an increase of the crosslinking kinetics. Increasing the polymer concentration leads to a stronger gel whereas an increase of crosslinking reagent (STMP) evidences a critical concentration above which the rheological properties of the gel do not change anymore. This may be explained by the specificity of the system for which the polymer concentration is high and negative charges appear.