Relationships Between Selected Properties of Seeds,Flours, and Starches from Different Chickpea Cultivars

ABSTRACT

Five desi (PBG-1, PDG-4, PDG-3, GL-769, and GPF-2) and one kabuli type (L-550) chickpea cultivars were evaluated for their seed mass, volume, hydration capacity, swelling capacity, cooking time, and instrumental textural properties (hardness, cohesiveness, gumminess, and chewiness). Flour was prepared from these chickpea cultivars and various physicochemical and functional properties were determined. The pasting (pasting temperature, peak viscosity, breakdown, and final viscosity) and gelatinization (T _o, T _p, T _c, and ΔH _gel) properties of these flours were measured using Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA) and Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC), respectively. Starch was also isolated from chickpea cultivars and evaluated for amylose content, swelling power, solubility, and syneresis values. Physicochemical, cooking, and instrumental textural properties of seeds of different chickpea cultivars were related to physicochemical, gelatinization, and pasting properties of their flours and physicochemical properties of their starches. Selected properties of chickpea seeds were significantly correlated with the properties of their starches and flours. Hardness value of soaked chickpea seeds was positively correlated to cooking time, seed mass, seed volume, hydration, and swelling capacity (p < 0.01). Water solubility index (WSI) of chickpea flours was positively correlated to seed mass, volume, hydration capacity, and hardness value (p < 0.05). Selected instrumental textural parameters of seeds had positive correlation with ΔH _gel of flours (p < 0.01). Peak viscosity of flours showed positive correlation to breakdown, final viscosity, bulk density, and negative correlation to cohesiveness of soaked seeds (p < 0.01). Final viscosity showed negative correlation to bulk density and water absorption index (WAI) (p < 0.01) of flours.     

Physicochemical,functional, thermal and structural properties of isolated Kabuli chickpea proteins as affected by processing approaches

Kabuli chickpea seeds were processed by soaking only and soaking followed either by pressure cooking or roasting. Proteins were isolated from both raw and processed seeds, and the effects of these processing approaches on the physicochemical, functional, thermal and structural properties as well as SDS‐PAGE profiles of the protein isolates were investigated. Thermal processes significantly (P < 0.05) decreased protein yield, content, colour difference, emulsifying properties and protein solubility of the protein isolates, but increased lightness and water and oil absorption capacities. Protein thermal properties, secondary structure and SDS‐PAGE banding patterns were significantly changed in thermal‐processed samples, especially those that were pressure cooked. No endothermic peak was detected in differential scanning calorimetry thermograms, and peak intensity of amide I absorption band at 1600–1700 cm^?1 in Fourier transform infrared spectra reduced. The results reveal that pressure cooking had more pronounced effects on the properties of the protein isolates than other processing approaches.     

Thermal processing of rice grains affects the physical properties of their pregelatinised rice flours

Waxy, low- and high-amylose rice were cooked at different temperatures (50, 70, 90 °C) for different times (15, 30, 45 min). The microscopic, rheological and gel textural properties of resultant flours were investigated. There was a coarser and discontinuous honeycomb-like structure with formation of pores in rice flour with greater cooking degree. T_Gʹmax was positively correlated with cooking temperature and time. As cooking temperature increased, the Gʹ values of pastes first increased and then decreased, whereas the opposite trend was observed for tan δ. Meanwhile, increased cooking temperature was responsible for increases in n values and caused drops in K and hysteresis area. As cooking time increased, the hardness and gumminess of gels from rice cooked were increased at lower temperature, but were decreased at higher temperature. Overall, cooking temperature was more important in determining the processing properties of rice flours than cooking time.     

Nutrients and antinutrients in cowpea and horse gram flours in comparison to chickpea flour: Evaluation of their flour functionality

The nutrient composition, antinutritional factors and flour functionality of cowpea and horse gram flours were evaluated in comparison to chickpea flour characteristics. Protein content of these flours was in the range of 22.5−24.1%. Fat content was highest in chickpea (4.8%) and lowest in horse gram (1.4%). Resistant starch and phytic acid were significantly higher in cowpea flour. Compared to chickpea and cowpea, horse gram has more carbohydrate, dietary fibre, polyphenols and trypsin inhibitor activity and less oligosaccharides. Horse gram and chickpea flours had the highest water and oil absorption capacities with values of 148.1% and 109.3%, respectively. Although emulsion activity (58.1%) and stability (52.0%) were superior in horse gram, foaming capacity and foam stability were significantly higher in chickpea and cowpea flours, respectively. These results suggest the potential utility of cowpea and horse gram flours as substitutes for chickpea flour in some food products formulations.     

Effect of germination and dehulling on functional properties of legume flours

The functional properties of flours derived from selected legumes were studied before and after dehulling of the germinated seeds. Ungerminated seeds were used as the control. The chosen legumes were green gram (Phaseolus aureus), cowpea (Vigna catjang), lentil (Lens culinaris) and bengal gram (Cicer arietinum). Dehulled samples had a higher protein solubility compared with germinated and control samples. The bulk densities of germinated and dehulled legume flours were lower compared to control. Germination increased water absorption capacities of legume flours from 1226, 1285, 974 and 1362 g kg^?1 to 1481, 1433, 1448 and 1517 g kg^?1 in green gram, cowpea, lentil and bengal gram, respectively. Fat absorption capacities increased in germinated samples (1130, 1242, 920 and 837 g kg^?1) as against 900, 993, 857 and 788 g kg^?1 at ambient conditions for green gram, cowpea, lentil and bengal gram, respectively. On dehulling, the fat absorption capacities of samples were reduced and the differences were statistically significant. The emulsification capacities of control samples ranged from 55 to 193 ml oil emulsified per gram of sample. On germination and dehulling, the emulsification capacities, activities and stabilities of samples increased significantly. There were increases in foaming capacities and reduction in foam stabilities of all the samples investigated on germination and dehulling. Thus, the study indicated that germination and dehulling improved the functional properties of legumes. Copyright © 2006 Society of Chemical Industry     

In vitro starch digestibility,expected glycemic index,and thermal and pasting properties of flours from pea,lentil and chickpea cultivars

In vitro starch digestibility, expected glycemic index (eGI), and thermal and pasting properties of flours from pea, lentil and chickpea grown in Canada under identical environmental conditions were investigated. The protein content and gelatinization transition temperatures of lentil flour were higher than those of pea and chickpea flours. Chickpea flour showed a lower amylose content (10.8–13.5%) but higher free lipid content (6.5–7.1%) and amylose–lipid complex melting enthalpy (0.7–0.8 J/g). Significant differences among cultivars within the same species were observed with respect to swelling power, gelatinization properties, pasting properties and in vitro starch digestibility, especially chickpea flour from desi (Myles) and kabuli type (FLIP 97-101C and 97-Indian2-11). Lentil flour was hydrolyzed more slowly and to a lesser extent than pea and chickpea flours. The amount of slowly digestible starch (SDS) in chickpea flour was the highest among the pulse flours, but the resistant starch (RS) content was the lowest. The eGI of lentil flour was the lowest among the pulse flours.     

Preliminary investigations on the effects of ageing and cooking on the Raman spectra of porcine longissimus dorsi

The influence of ageing and cooking on the Raman spectrum of porcine longissimus dorsi was investigated. The rich information contained in the Raman spectrum was highlighted, with numerous changes attributed to changes in the environment and conformations of the myofibrillar proteins.Predictions equations for shear force and cooking loss were developed from the Raman spectra of both raw and cooked pork. Good correlations and standard errors of prediction were obtained for both WB shear force and cooking loss, with the raw and the cooked samples showing almost identical results R² = 0.77, root mean standard error of prediction (RMSEP)% of mean = 12% for shear force; R² = 0.71, RMSEP% of mean = 10% for cooking loss. The Raman spectra were also able to predict the extent of cooking that occurred within the pork (R²_val = 0.94, RMSEP% of range = 5.5%).Raman spectroscopy has considerable potential as a method for non-destructive and rapid determination of pork quality parameters such as tenderness. Raman spectroscopy may provide a means of determining changes during cooking and the extent to which foods have been cooked.     

Phytic acid content of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) and black gram (Vigna mungo): varietal differences and effect of domestic processing and cooking methods

Phytic acid content of various cultivars showed a narrow variation: 7.48-8.00 g kg^?1 and 6.47-6.68 g kg^?1 for chickpea (Cicer arietinum L) and black gram (Vigna mungo L), respectively. Phytic acid was lowered significantly by the common methods of domestic processing and cooking including soaking, cooking, autoclaving and sprouting of the legume grains. Sprouting had the most marked phytic acid lowering effect followed by autoclaving and soaking. Cooking of soaked seeds lowered phytic acid by 20-26% in chickpea and 35-40% in black gram grains whereas the loss was 7-11% and 6-9% in these pulses, respectively, when unsoaked seeds were cooked.     

Effect of seed treatments on the chemical composition and properties of two amaranth species: starch and protein

The seeds of two Amaranth species were studied. The starch contents were 543 and 623 g kg^?1 while crude protein contents were 154 and 169 g kg^?1 for Amaranthus caudatus and Amaranthus cruentus seeds, respectively. The effect of several treatments, including cooking, popping and germination and flour air classification on the protein and starch properties were studied. Air classification decreased the starch content and increased the protein content, while heating increased the protein but did not affect the starch content. Germination decreased both starch and protein contents. Amylose content was increased by air classification and heating, but was not affected by germination. It was found that all treatments increased the starch swelling power and reduced the falling number. The resistant starch content was increased in the high protein flour (HPF) fraction and germinated flour compared with the raw flour, while its content decreased in the heat treated seed flours. These processes also affected the starch gelatinization temperature and peak viscosity. The thermal properties of the starch flour were not affected by air classification while gelatinization energy was decreased significantly (by 52.0 and 90.0% and by 70.0 and 95.0%) in cooked and popped A caudatus and A cruentus seed flours, respectively. The gelatinization energy was highest in germinated seeds dried at 90 °C with values of 2.67 and 3.87 J g^?1. Air classification reduced the level of all protein fractions. Thermal treatment decreased the water‐soluble fraction (albumins + globulins) and alcohol‐soluble fraction (prolamins) in both species. The levels of all fractions except the water‐soluble fraction (albumins + globulins) were reduced significantly in both species by germination, which mainly increased the amount of aspartic acid, serine and alanine, while the amounts of threonine, arginine and tyrosine decreased in both species. The polypeptide bands of the HPF in both species were unchanged compared with the raw seed flours, but more intensive coloured bands were observed. Thermal treatments eliminated major and minor bands above 35.0 KDa in both species. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry     

Seed treatments affect functional and antinutritional properties of amaranth flours

The effects of seed treatments, including cooking, popping germination and flour air classification, on the functional properties and antinutritional factors of Amaranthus caudatus and Amaranthus cruentus seeds were studied. Thermal treatments increased the water absorption with a maximum value of 5.1 and 6.3 g g⁻¹ in flour of popped seeds of both species. Generally, fat absorption increased after the treatments. Air classification and germination followed by drying at low temperature increased the foam stability of the flours, while thermal treatment and germination followed by drying at higher temperatures reduced the foam stability. All treatments except air classification decreased the emulsion stability. Also, all treatments except germination followed by drying at 30 °C increased the flour dispersibility, whereas the soluble nitrogen index was increased in the germinated seed flours and decreased in thermal treated seeds and air‐classified flours. Air classification increased the contents of phenolic compounds and phytate and decreased the contents of enzyme inhibitors, whereas the thermal treatments reduced the contents of phenolic compounds, phytate and enzyme inhibitors to a greater extent for cooking than for popping. Germination followed by drying reduced the level of phenolic compounds, phytate and enzyme inhibitors. Copyright © 2006 Society of Chemical Industry     

Effect of hydrothermal treatment of runner bean (Phaseolus coccineus) seeds and starch isolation on starch digestibility

The study investigated the effect of traditional soaking and cooking, storage after cooking and freezing (? 18 °C, 21 days) and autoclaving of two varieties of runner bean on starch digestibility. Results achieved were compared with digestibility of isolated starch subjected to similar treatments. The digestibility of native starch from Nata var. seeds was lower after isolation than in raw flour. This starch was characterized by a higher content of fat and lower values of swelling power (SP) and amylose leaching (AML). After the thermal treatment, a significantly higher content of rapidly digestible starch (RDS) was observed both in seeds and starch. It was accompanied by reduced contents of resistant starch (RS) and slowly digestible starch (SDS). In flours from cooked seeds, the content of RDS was observed to be higher than in flours from autoclaved seeds, despite similar changes in contents of other constituents (ash and protein). It was probably due to better starch gelatinization owing to the long-lasting soaking of seeds. This resulted in a greater decrease of amylose content of starch compared to the other flours. Differences in SP, AML and thermal properties between starches isolated from two bean varieties had no influence on their digestibility after cooking. The storage of starch pastes at a temperature of ? 18 °C, unlike that of seeds, resulted in a significant increase in RS content, which shows the importance of other flour components in the process of starch retrogradation.     

Effect of thermal treatments on vitality and physical characteristics of bean,chickpea and lentil

Thermal disinfestation treatments are relatively easy to apply, leave no chemical residues and may have some fungicidal activity. However, temperature and time combinations required to kill insect pests may meet or exceed those that reduce the viability of seeds, nutrients content, shelf life or technological characteristics. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of thermal treatments (different temperature and time combinations) on physical and biological characteristics of bean, chickpea and lentil. Seed samples of common bean, chickpea and lentil were treated at low (12, 24 or 48 h at −18 °C) or high (30, 60 or 90 min at 60 °C) temperature. Seed germination, mean germination time, physical characteristics: solids loss, electrolytes leached and firmness after cooking, were determined. The use of thermal treatments for disinfesting seeds of bean, chickpea and lentil represent a physical technique of pest control that can be harmless for seeds destined for crop production (especially for organic farming) or to be stored in germplasm banks. Moreover, thermal treatments can be applied also to grain legumes used as food by humans, with no significant effect on lentils and with a reduction of cooking time for chickpeas. Beans should be treated only with cold treatments and for no more than 24 h.     

Physicochemical and digestion characteristics of flour and starch from eight Canadian red and green lentils

Physicochemical and nutritional properties of flour and isolated starch from eight Canadian lentil cultivars were assessed to identify unique samples and key factors affecting starch digestion. The results showed that nearly half of apparent amylose in lentil flours was underestimated because it was complexed and embedded within the flour matrix, which led to slower starch digestion of cooked flour. Cooked red lentil flours showed significantly higher resistant starch content (11.0%) than flours from green lentils (6.8%) (P < 0.05). Among green lentils, Asterix and Greenland were unique for their high slowly digestible starch content after cooking, possibly owing to their high phenolic content and α‐glucosidase inhibitory activity. Long‐ and short‐range ordering in starch was more indicative of low starch digestion for raw or cooked lentil flour rather than for isolated starch. The results suggest the flour matrix protects the starch ordered structure from enzyme hydrolysis.     

Study of selected quality and agronomic characteristics and their interrelationship in Kabuli‐type chickpea genotypes (Cicer arietinum L.)

Impact of genotype on quality, agronomic characteristics and their interrelationship in Kabuli‐type chickpea was investigated to provide significant feedback to breeder for selection/evolution of the most suitable varieties. Seven genotypes were studied for seventeen physical, chemical and agronomic characteristics. The effect of Kabuli‐type chickpea genotype on the physicochemical parameters, cooking time and agronomic characteristics were significant. Maximum seed size and volume were recorded for CC98/99 (0.32 g and 0.26 mL seed^?1, respectively), density and swelling index for the genotype FLIP97‐179C (having minimum seed size and volume), while the rest of the genotypes were statistically the same. Weight, volume after hydration, hydration capacity and swelling capacity followed the same pattern. Maximum moisture, protein and mineral concentration were noted in CC98/99. Seed protein concentration for the remaining genotypes was statistically non‐significant from one another. Longer period was taken by CM 2000 for flowering and maturity (130 and 181 days, respectively). Minimum time to flowering and maturity was taken by CC98/99. Genotype CC 98/99 outyielded all other genotypes (2107 kg ha^?1). Seed size and seed volume were strongly and positively correlated with protein content, weight after hydration, volume after hydration, hydration and swelling capacities (r = 0.83–1.0). Strong correlation was also noted among different agronomic characters.     

Relationship between cooking time and some physical characteristics in chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.)

The time required to cook chickpeas (Cicer arietinum) varies from 55 to over 200 min. Seed weight and volume, swelling index and hydration capacity were found to correlate with cooking time. Correlation coefficients of between 0.65 and 0.75 were found for kabuli-type (large seed) chickpeas, and coefficients of between 0.78 and 0.87 when desi types (small seed) were included. These relationships enable large numbers of chickpea genotypes to be screened rapidly into long, medium and short cooking time types.     

Carbohydrate composition of raw and extruded pulse flours

Extrusion cooking technology is commercially used in the fabrication of a variety of snack-type and ready-to-eat foods made from cereal grains. However, with the exception of soybean, pulses such as lentil, dry pea and chickpea have not been used for the development of extruded food products. In this study, total carbohydrates, mono-, di- and oligosaccharides, and soluble and insoluble dietary fiber were determined before and after extrusion cooking under specific processing conditions. Concentrations of total available carbohydrates (TAC) in lentil, chickpea and dry pea flours ranged from 625 g/kg to 657 g/kg dry matter. Dry pea showed the highest concentration of TAC, followed by chickpea and lentil. Extrusion processing did not significantly (p < 0.05) affect the TAC content of dry pea and lentil flours. However, extrusion processing decreased the concentration of the raffinose family of oligosaccharides (raffinose and stachyose) in pulse extrudates. Formulated pulse flours demonstrated a beneficial increase in dietary fiber. This research indicates that value-added, nutritious snacks with reduced levels of flatulence factors and higher contents of dietary fiber can be fabricated successfully by extrusion processing of formulations based on lentil, dry pea or chickpea, and represent good alternatives to traditional cereal-based snacks. Also, the commercialization of value-added, pulse-based snacks would increase pulse consumption.     

Physical and cooking characteristics of black gram (Phaseolus mungoo L.) cultivars grown in India

Pulses are important component of diet, and information on their physical properties is needed for designing machines while cooking quality is important for consumer acceptance. Three black gram cultivars grown in India were evaluated for physical and cooking properties. Proximate composition revealed that three cultivars contained 24.5–26.7% protein, 1.1–1.3% fat, 2.8–3.7% ash and 60.4–63.3% carbohydrates. Length, breadth and thickness of seeds were in the range of 4.66–5.11 mm, 3.71–3.79 mm and 3.20–3.29 mm, respectively. True density and porosity varied from 1.25–1.29 g mL^?1 to 33.43–36.09%, respectively. Hydration and swelling capacities of the seeds varied from 0.036–0.041 g per seed to 0.037–0.042 mL per seed, respectively. Cooking time of unsoaked seeds varied significantly from 35.3 to 42.7 min. Hardness and adhesiveness of the cooked seeds varied from 2.12–2.55 kg to 0.02–0.99 kg s, respectively. The black gram cultivars are rich in protein, and soaking treatment improved their cooking quality.     

Effects of processing and cooking on ascorbic acid content of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L) varieties

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L) is an important source of protein in several developing countries. Two commonly grown chickpea cultivars, HPG‐17 and C‐235, were evaluated for their physicochemical characteristics such as 100‐seed weight and density. Both chickpea varieties were subjected to various processing treatments and then analysed for their ascorbic acid content. The ascorbic acid content was generally found to be higher in the C‐235 variety, but it was higher in the HPG‐17 variety after germination. Significant results were obtained for both varieties after various treatments such as pressure cooking, germination, parching and solar cooking. It was found that the ascorbic acid content in both varieties decreased after all treatments except germination. © 2001 Society of Chemical Industry     

Effect of processing and storage time on in vitro digestibility and resistant starch content of two bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L) varieties

Seeds from two commercial bean varieties were cooked and stored for different times and analysed for chemical composition and in vitro starch digestibility. Parallel portions of cooked seeds were dried at 55 °C, milled and stored as flours. In general, protein and ash contents in both samples did not change with storage time, but statistical differences were shown between the two varieties (p < 0.05). Available starch (AS) contents in flours from the ‘negro’ variety did not change (p < 0.05) with storage time and, in general, were higher than in ‘flor de mayo’ samples, whose AS levels decreased during storage. The lower AS in ‘flor de mayo’ flour could be the consequence of formation of resistant starch due to retrogradation. Samples of whole ‘negro’ seeds did not show differences in AS content at 0, 24 and 48 h of storage compared with the corresponding flours, but at 72 and 96 h the AS increased in the whole samples. ‘Flor de mayo’ showed a similar pattern in flour and whole samples, with slightly higher values in the whole seeds. In general, total resistant starch (RS) content in the two varieties was higher in the flours than in ‘whole’ seeds, a fact that is not easy to explain at present. ‘Negro’ flour presented an RS content around 65.0 g kg^?1, and approximately 55.0 g kg^?1 was recorded in ‘flor de mayo’, with slight changes when storage time increased. Whole ‘flor de mayo’ showed significant levels of the retrograded portion of resistant starch (RRS), which did not change with storage time (p < 0.05). However, values were lower than in the flours. A pattern similar to that of the ‘negro’ variety was obtained for ‘flor de mayo’, since the flour exhibited higher amounts of RRS; however, in this variety, the RRS content in ‘whole’ samples decreased after prolonged storage. Flours presented higher amylolysis rates than whole samples, and the ease of digestion increased with storage time. Copyright © 2003 Society of Chemical Industry