Gluten‐Free Snacks Using Plantain–Chickpea and Maize Blend: Chemical Composition,Starch Digestibility,and Predicted Glycemic Index

An increase in celiac consumers has caused an increasing interest to develop good quality gluten‐free food products with high nutritional value. Snack foods are consumed worldwide and have become a normal part of the eating habits of the celiac population making them a target to improve their nutritive value. Extrusion and deep‐frying of unripe plantain, chickpea, and maize flours blends produced gluten‐free snacks with high dietary fiber contents (13.7–18.2 g/100 g) and low predicted glycemic index (28 to 35). The gluten‐free snacks presented lower fat content (12.7 to 13.6 g/100 g) than those reported in similar commercial snacks. The snack with the highest unripe plantain flour showed higher slowly digestible starch (11.6 and 13.4 g/100 g) than its counterpart with the highest chickpea flour level (6 g/100 g). The overall acceptability of the gluten‐free snacks was similar to that chili‐flavored commercial snack. It was possible to develop gluten‐free snacks with high dietary fiber content and low predicted glycemic index with the blend of the 3 flours, and these gluten‐free snacks may also be useful as an alternative to reduce excess weight and obesity problems in the general population and celiac community.     

Effects of hydrocolloids on chemical properties and cooking quality of gluten‐free spaghetti

The effects of different hydrocolloids on chemical composition and cooking quality of spaghetti based on maize and oat flours were investigated. Rheological and texture properties of the gluten‐free dough were also assessed. Amount of 2% of gellan gum, carboxymethylcellulose, pectin, agar, egg protein powder, tapioca starch, guar seed flour and chitosan were separately added to the formulation. The samples enriched with hydrocolloids generally showed a different rheological behaviour compared with the control samples. As regards chemical composition, spaghetti with chitosan showed a value of insoluble dietary fibres (8.0%) higher than the control ones (3.9%). Moreover, results highlighted that most hydrocolloids improved cooking quality and texture properties of spaghetti (adhesiveness, cooking loss, hardness), thus supporting their application in gluten‐free pasta.     

Native and modified chayotextle flour effect on functional property and cooking quality of spaghetti

The objective of this research was to study the effect of partially substituting semolina flour by native (NCHF) and modified chayotextle (CHFMD) flours, on the physicochemical properties and cooking quality of spaghetti. Spaghetti was obtained by replacing semolina flour (control) with five different concentrations of NCHF and CHFMD flours (10%, 17.5%, 25%, 32.5% and 40%). The proximal composition of the flours showed that both NCHF and CHFMD flours lower content of protein and fat but higher content of ash and resistant starch (RS). Moreover, the RS content increased due to thermal modification (TM) and that RS remained high, even after the cooking process. Pasting properties such as peak viscosity, breakdown, setback and final viscosity were influenced by NCHF and CHFMD concentrations. Brightness (ΔL^*) was significantly reduced by inclusion of increasing CHFMD levels. True density and water absorption values increased with addition of NCHF and CHFMD, compared to the control spaghetti. The results obtained in this study demonstrated the possibility for producing spaghetti containing up to 40% CHFMD flour, with acceptable quality and functional properties.     

Spaghetti cooking quality of waxy and non‐waxy durum wheats and blends

Quality attributes of waxy durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L), milled semolina and cooked spaghetti were examined and compared with those of two non‐waxy durum cultivars. With the exception of kernel hardness, wheat quality characteristics were similar for both waxy and non‐waxy durum. Compared with average values obtained for durum wheat grown in North Dakota (USA) during the crop year 2000, the values obtained for the wheat used in this study were equal or better for most parameters evaluated. Semolina extraction for all samples was lower than the 2000 average of 62.6%. The waxy lines had higher ash, lower speck count, similar protein quantity, lower wet gluten and stronger mixograph curves than the non‐waxy cultivars. Waxy durum semolina had higher lipid content, starch damage, stirring number and flour swelling values. Spaghetti made from waxy durum semolina had shorter cooking time, similar cooking loss and cooked weight and lower firmness values, which would be unacceptable by most standards. Spaghetti made from blends containing 20–80% waxy durum semolina were evaluated. Cooking time and firmness decreased and cooking loss increased as the amount of waxy semolina increased. Acceptable spaghetti was obtained using 20–40% waxy semolina blends, depending on the quality of the non‐waxy blending material. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry     

Reducing the glycaemic index and increasing the slowly digestible starch content in gluten‐free cereal‐based foods: a review

Commercially available gluten‐free (GF) cereal‐based foods are generally characterised by a lower nutritional quality than their gluten‐containing counterparts, relatively lower resistant starch (RS) content, along with higher glycaemic index (GI) often being reported. To overcome this nutritional imbalance, extensive research has been conducted to investigate the preparation of a new generation of staple GF products. This review reported the main strategies currently adopted in GF cereal‐based food recipes to formulate products with overall slowly digestible starch properties. They are mainly obtained by the utilisation of alternative ingredients to be incorporated into standard food formulation (including native starch and GF flours) or by technological treatments that may contribute to impact starch digestibility. Considering data from in vitro digestion trials, indications suggested that, aiming to obtain a RS content of about 5% (dry weight) and lowering the in vitro GI values, the minimum high amylose starch (amylose >60%) replacement level in GF bread and cookie formulations should be in the order of 20% by weight of total flours. Overall, with respect to un‐substituted GF foods, two‐ to three‐times higher RS contents, along with a parallel in vitro GI decrease (up to ?50%), were obtained for GF pasta and ready‐to‐eat snacks enriched with legume flours at inclusion levels from 40% to 100% by weight of total flours. The use of flours from pseudocereals (e.g., quinoa, amaranth and buckwheat) with and without sourdough did not always guarantee favourably slowly digestible starch GF foods.     

Gluten‐free pasta: effect of green plantain flour addition and influence of starch modification on the functional properties and resistant starch content

Green plantain flour (GPF) is rich in indigestible carbohydrates, especially in resistant starch (RS). The objective of this study was to improve the functional pasta properties and RS content by producing gluten‐free (GF) pasta based on rice flour with different amounts of GPF addition (15–60% of total flour blend). Egg albumen (3.5–6.0% of total flour) and dough moisture (36–40%, dough humidity%), at constant emulsifier (0.5% of total flour) addition, were optimised in the first trials. The results showed that an addition up to 30% GPF with higher amount of egg albumen (6%) at dough moisture of 38% provided pasta with acceptable cooking quality and high RS content. Some qualities and/or RS content of GF pasta samples was further improved by adding 30% pregelatinised flours from the native GPF or drum‐dried green banana flour (DDGBF) in combination with applying varied steps of cooking and/or cooling, which were applied after pasta extrusion prior to drying them. The study suggests that GPF, in its native form, but particularly when pregelatinised, is a promising ingredient to be used for the production of GF pasta.     

Influence of maize flour particle size on gluten‐free breadmaking

BACKGROUND: Maize, one of the suitable grains for coeliac consumption, is, together with rice, the most cultivated cereal in the world. However, the inclusion of maize flour in gluten‐free bread is a minority and studies are scarce. This paper analyses the influence of different maize flour types and their particle sizes on the quality of two types of bread without gluten (80% and 110% water in the formulation) obtained from them. We also analysed the microstructure of the dough and its behaviour during the fermentation. RESULTS: Finer flours had a lower dough development during fermentation in all cases. Among the different types of flour, those whose microstructure revealed compact particles were those which had higher specific bread volume, especially when the particle size was greater. Among the formulations, the dough with more water gave breads with higher specific volume, an effect that was more important in more compact flours. The higher volume breads had lower values of hardness and resilience. CONCLUSION: The type of corn flour and mainly its particle size influence significantly the dough development of gluten‐free bread during fermentation and therefore the final volume and texture of the breads obtained. The flours having coarser particle size are the most suitable for making gluten‐free maize bread. © 2012 Society of Chemical Industry     

Formulation optimisation of gluten‐free functional spaghetti based on quinoa,maize and soy flours

In this work, the formulation of non‐conventional gluten‐free fresh and dry pasta based on quinoa, maize and defatted soy was optimised. Results showed that the dough samples with high content of maize had the higher value of elongation and shear viscosity and then increased dough firmness. The pre‐gelatinised maize content also affected the rheological properties by increasing the dough firmness. Regarding the dry spaghetti sensorial properties, the surface response plot showed that the overall acceptability of both non‐cooked and cooked spaghetti increases with the increase of the pre‐gelatinised maize content and the decrease of the quinoa flour, whereas the soy flour did not affect the overall quality. In particular, the pre‐gelatinised maize improved the resistance to break and the taste of non‐cooked and cooked spaghetti, respectively. Regarding the fresh spaghetti, results showed that the overall acceptability for fresh non‐cooked spaghetti increases with the increase of the pre‐gelatinised maize content and with the decrease of the quinoa flour; whereas, only the pre‐gelatinised maize content affected the overall acceptability of fresh cooked spaghetti.     

Pasting,thermal, gel texture,resistant starch and colour properties of unripe banana flour from 10 desert banana varieties cultivated in South Africa

Unripe banana flour is a potential commercial ingredient in various food products for increased resistant starch and reduced gluten contents. In the present study, the pasting (rapid visco-analysis), gel texture (penetration test), thermal (differential scanning calorimetry), colour (tri-stimulus colour indices) and the resistant starch properties of unripe banana flour produced from different dessert banana varieties (n?=?10) cultivated in South Africa, were analysed and juxtaposed to wheat and maize flour. The functional properties varied significantly (p?≤?0.05) between banana varieties, and from wheat and maize flours, to various extents. Selected functional property ranges of unripe banana, wheat and maize flours, respectively included; flour colour index (63.16–76.42, 77.34 and 80.96), paste viscosity (405.5–556.6, 124.7 and 115.6 RVU), gelatinization temperature (64.67–71.21, 71.11 and 69.95?°C), gel firmness (7.24–11.44?×?10^??2 N, 3.49?×?10^??2 N and 6.56?×?10^??2 N) and resistant starch content (19.9–47.4, 2.8 and 2.2% w/w). Multivariate analysis (principle component analysis) showed that the unripe banana flours from different varieties were distinguished from each other based on the pasting temperature. The unripe banana flours were distinguished from both wheat and maize flour based on breakdown and peak paste viscosities. The breakdown viscosity was the most positively related measure to the resistant starch content with a linear regression R-squared value of 0.898, indicating a significant role played by granule structure in resistance to enzymatic hydrolysis. The present research demonstrates that selection of appropriate dessert banana variety is important when replacing staple flours (wheat and maize) with unripe dessert banana flour as a functional ingredient.     

In vitro starch digestibility,expected glycemic index,and thermal and pasting properties of flours from pea,lentil and chickpea cultivars

In vitro starch digestibility, expected glycemic index (eGI), and thermal and pasting properties of flours from pea, lentil and chickpea grown in Canada under identical environmental conditions were investigated. The protein content and gelatinization transition temperatures of lentil flour were higher than those of pea and chickpea flours. Chickpea flour showed a lower amylose content (10.8–13.5%) but higher free lipid content (6.5–7.1%) and amylose–lipid complex melting enthalpy (0.7–0.8 J/g). Significant differences among cultivars within the same species were observed with respect to swelling power, gelatinization properties, pasting properties and in vitro starch digestibility, especially chickpea flour from desi (Myles) and kabuli type (FLIP 97-101C and 97-Indian2-11). Lentil flour was hydrolyzed more slowly and to a lesser extent than pea and chickpea flours. The amount of slowly digestible starch (SDS) in chickpea flour was the highest among the pulse flours, but the resistant starch (RS) content was the lowest. The eGI of lentil flour was the lowest among the pulse flours.     

Cooking quality characterisation of ‘spaghetti’ based on soft wheat flour enriched with oat flour

The cooking quality of pasta based on soft wheat flour and supplemented with three percentages of oat flour was studied. Results showed that oat flour modified deeply the cooking quality of spaghetti in comparison with samples based on only soft wheat flour. These effects were attributed to both starch‐lipid complex formation and presence of β‐glucans that weak gluten network. An increase in optimal cooking time with increase in oat percentages was observed (480 vs. 630 min). Samples enriched with oat flour showed a good‐quality cooking total organic matter (TOM values ranged from 1.4 to 2).     

The impact of the protein network on the pasting and cooking properties of dry pasta products

Durum wheat semolina gluten and starch as well as processing conditions determine pasta cooking quality. This study investigated whether, for good organoleptic properties, a permanent protein network needs to be formed during pasta drying or can still be formed during cooking. The cooking quality of 16 spaghetti samples was related to the levels of sodium dodecyl sulphate extractable protein (SDSEP), starch gelatinisation temperatures as well as to the swelling properties of milled dry spaghettis. SDSEP levels in dry and cooked products varied between 31% and 56%, and 12% to 21% of total protein contents, respectively. The highest quality spaghettis had relatively higher levels of SDSEP in the dry product, low starch gelatinisation temperatures and swelling powers, and rigid particles. The lowest quality spaghettis had lower levels of SDSEP and higher gelatinisation temperatures. This work implies that high pasta quality results from an optimal degree of protein polymerisation during drying and/or the subsequent cooking.     

Sensory and Physicochemical Studies of Thermally Micronized Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) and Green Lentil (Lens culinaris) Flours as Binders in Low‐Fat Beef Burgers

Pulses are known to be nutritious foods but are susceptible to oxidation due to the reaction of lipoxygenase (LOX) with linolenic and linoleic acids which can lead to off flavors caused by the formation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Infrared micronization at 130 and 150 °C was investigated as a heat treatment to determine its effect on LOX activity and VOCs of chickpea and green lentil flour. The pulse flours were added to low‐fat beef burgers at 6% and measured for consumer acceptability and physicochemical properties. Micronization at 130 °C significantly decreased LOX activity for both flours. The lentil flour micronized at 150 °C showed a further significant decrease in LOX activity similar to that of the chickpea flour at 150 °C. The lowering of VOCs was accomplished more successfully with micronization at 130 °C for chickpea flour while micronization at 150 °C for the green lentil flour was more effective. Micronization minimally affected the characteristic fatty acid content in each flour but significantly increased omega‐3 and n‐6 fatty acids at 150 °C in burgers with lentil and chickpea flours, respectively. Burgers with green lentil flour micronized at 130 and 150 °C, and chickpea flour micronized at 150 °C were positively associated with acceptability. Micronization did not affect the shear force and cooking losses of the burgers made with both flours. Formulation of low‐fat beef burgers containing 6% micronized gluten‐free binder made from lentil and chickpea flour is possible based on favorable results for physicochemical properties and consumer acceptability.     

Effect of biochemical constituents on macaroni quality. I.—Differences between hard red spring and durum wheats

Durum semolina and farina from hard red spring wheat were fractionated into starch, gluten, watersoluble fraction and sludge. By systematic interchange of the various fractions, a series of reconstituted ‘flours’ was formed. Macaroni was made from these reconstituted materials and the colour and cooking characteristics of these macaroni samples were evaluated. In this way, differences in the effects of the four fractions from the two wheat types on macaroni quality were studied. Macaroni made from durum wheat had superior colour, higher cooked weight, greater residue and lower firmness score than macaroni made from hard red spring wheat. Interchange of gluten and water-soluble fractions had the most pronounced effect on macaroni colour and on macaroni cooking characteristics. Interchange of starch and sludge fractions had no effect on colour and only a small effect on cooking quality.     

Optimising process for making pasta from maize in admixture with durum wheat

Processing conditions for making pasta from blends of maize (Zea mays L) flour and durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf) semolina (ratio 66:33 w) were studied. The maize mill stream characteristics determined the quality of the maize pasta; flours with low lipid content and very fine granulometry produced pasta with good colour characteristics and high cooking quality (with especially good surface conditions). The use of white maize varieties was preferred; they produced pasta which, after heat treatment, had colour indices close to those of durum wheat pasta. Extrusion conditions affected the colour characteristics and cooking quality of the pasta. The cooking qualities of macaroni products were better than those of spaghetti. In all cases, heat treatment (90°C for 2 h) improved the cooking quality of the pasta: it reduced cooking losses but did not alter the surface condition and viscoelasticity index.     

Effect of the shape of rice starch granules on flour characteristics and gluten‐free bread quality

The effect of three different rice varieties with different starch shapes (Seolgaeng (SG), round starch structure; Samkwang (SK), polygonal starch structure and Boramchan (BRC), polygonal starch structure) on rice flour characteristics and gluten‐free bread baking quality was investigated. Rice flours were produced by dry milling and passed through a 200 mesh sieve. Electron microscopy revealed that the structure of SG grains, with round starch granules, possessed larger void spaces than SK and BRC, composed of polygonal starch granules. For this reason, SG grain had low grain hardness and consequently, it was milled to a fine flour with low damaged starch content. The thermo‐mechanical properties were determined by Mixolab, which revealed that SG was gelatinised rapidly and maintained high viscosity after gelatinisation. These characteristics gave SG flour the ability to build up bread structure without gluten. Specific volume and crumb hardness of gluten‐free rice breads made of SG, SK and BRC flours were 3.37, 3.11 and 2.12 mL g^?1 and 2.61, 2.76 and 6.46 N, respectively. The SG flour with round starch structure is appropriate for making gluten‐free rice breads.     

Effects of toasting on the carbohydrate profile and antioxidant properties of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) flour added to durum wheat pasta

The effects of the toasting process on the carbohydrate profile and antioxidant properties of chickpea flour were studied, along with the cooking behaviour, and antioxidant and nutritional properties of pasta enriched with the chickpea flour. The toasting process increased the resistant starch, insoluble dietary fibre and antioxidant properties of the flour. Addition of chickpea flour (raw and toasted) to durum wheat semolina changed the carbohydrate profile in the uncooked and cooked enriched pasta, especially with the toasted chickpea, and worsened the overall quality of the pasta. The increase in total phenolic content and total free phenolic acid content in the uncooked pasta was due to positive effects of addition of the chickpea flours, while the increase in the bound phenolics fraction in the cooked pasta was from the durum wheat, which was crucial for its high concentrations of ferulic acid. The increase in the free fraction of the Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity in cooked pasta was consistent with the addition of chickpea.     

Biochemical changes in new plantain and cooking banana hybrids at various stages of ripening

BACKGROUND: New varieties of plantain and cooking banana with higher yields and improved pest and disease resistance are continuously being bred. There is therefore the need to study their properties during postharvest ripening. This work investigates the effects of ripening on the dry matter content, pH, titratable acidity, ascorbic acid content, browning potential, starch content and reducing and non‐reducing sugar contents of new FHIA 19 and FHIA 20 plantain and FHIA 03 cooking banana hybrids. RESULTS: The starch and ascorbic acid contents of all hybrids decreased as ripening progressed. The starch and dry matter contents of the FHIA 03 cooking banana were reduced from about 750 to < 100 g kg^?1 and from 260 to 190 g kg^?1 respectively after stage 9 of ripening, when samples had more black than yellow colour. The FHIA 03 cooking banana had the highest content of non‐reducing sugars. The titratable acidity of the FHIA 03 cooking banana was higher than that of the FHIA 19 and FHIA 20 plantains. The browning potential of all hybrids decreased after stage 7 of ripening, when samples were yellow with black spots. The FHIA 19 plantain had the lowest browning potential. CONCLUSION: Significant reductions in the dry matter, ascorbic acid and starch contents of the plantain and cooking banana hybrids were observed during the progress of ripening. The cooking banana variety contained lower levels of dry matter, ascorbic acid and starch than the plantain varieties. Copyright © 2008 Society of Chemical Industry     

Physicochemical properties,resistant starch content and enzymatic digestibility of unripe banana,edible canna,taro flours and their rice noodle products

Unripe banana, edible canna and taro flours, which have been reported to contain significant amounts of fibre, were investigated for their physicochemical properties, resistant starch (RS) content and in vitro starch digestibility, and compared with commercial high‐fibre‐modified starches from corn and tapioca. Differential scanning calorimetry showed a single endothermic peak located around 70–83 °C for the samples except the modified starches, which exhibited no transition enthalpy. The samples showed different pasting behaviours in the Rapid Visco‐Analyser (RVA) ranging from full to restricted swelling. The RS content varied from 1–26 g per 100 g dry sample, and the estimated glycaemic indices (GIs) of the samples were from 67% to 99%. Generally, samples with high RS were low in GI values. The starches produced acceptable rice noodles but with reduced rate of starch digestion and GI. The effects of the unripe banana, edible canna and taro flours on starch digestibility were either comparable or better than the commercial modified starches. These flours can substitute commercial modified starches to lower GIs of noodles and identical foods.