Foreword: International Symposium on the Stress Corrosion Cracking in Structural Materials at Ambient Temperatures

Stress corrosion cracking of the high-strength martensitic steel AISI 4340 (yield stress = 1503 MPa) in NaCl aqueous solutions of different concentrations was studied experimentally using compact tension specimens in free corroding conditions. The experiments were conducted under the controls of constant load, constant crack opening displacement (COD), constant loading rate, and constant COD rate. Despite the differences in controlling conditions, the experiments yielded similar results for the threshold stress intensity factor and the plateau velocity in the 3.5 wt pct NaCl solution. Dependence of the plateau velocity on the NaCl concentration was observed, whereas the values of the threshold stress intensity factors seem to be independent of the NaCl concentration in distilled water.     

Measurement and Modeling of Hydrogen Environment-Assisted Cracking in Monel K-500

Hydrogen environment-assisted cracking (HEAC) of Monel K-500 is quantified using slow-rising stress intensity loading with electrical potential monitoring of small crack propagation and elastoplastic J-integral analysis. For this loading, with concurrent crack tip plastic strain and H accumulation, aged Monel K-500 is susceptible to intergranular HEAC in NaCl solution when cathodically polarized at ?800 mV_SCE (E _A, vs saturated calomel) and lower. Intergranular cracking is eliminated by reduced cathodic polarization more positive than ?750 mV_SCE. Crack tip diffusible H concentration rises, from near 0 wppm at E _A of ?765 mV_SCE, with increasing cathodic polarization. This behavior is quantified by thermal desorption spectroscopy and barnacle cell measurements of hydrogen solubility vs overpotential for planar electrodes, plus measured-local crevice potential, and pH scaled to the crack tip. Using crack tip H concentration, excellent agreement is demonstrated between measurements and decohesion-based model predictions of the E _A dependencies of threshold stress intensity and Stage II growth rate. A critical level of cathodic polarization must be exceeded for HEAC to occur in aged Monel K-500. The damaging-cathodic potential regime likely shifts more negative for quasi-static loading or increasing metallurgical resistance to HEAC.     

Effect of Stress Level on the High Temperature Deformation and Fracture Mechanisms of Ti-45Al-2Nb-2Mn-0.8 vol. pct TiB2: An In Situ Experimental Study

The effect of the applied stress on the deformation and crack nucleation and propagation mechanisms of a γ-TiAl intermetallic alloy (Ti-45Al-2Nb-2Mn (at. pct)-0.8 vol. pct TiB₂) was examined by means of in situ tensile (constant strain rate) and tensile-creep (constant load) experiments performed at 973 K (700 °C) using a scanning electron microscope. Colony boundary cracking developed during the secondary stage in creep tests at 300 and 400 MPa and during the tertiary stage of the creep tests performed at higher stresses. Colony boundary cracking was also observed in the constant strain rate tensile test. Interlamellar ledges were only found during the tensile-creep tests at high stresses (σ > 400 MPa) and during the constant strain rate tensile test. Quantitative measurements of the nature of the crack propagation path along secondary cracks and along the primary crack indicated that colony boundaries were preferential sites for crack propagation under all the conditions investigated. The frequency of interlamellar cracking increased with stress, but this fracture mechanism was always of secondary importance. Translamellar cracking was only observed along the primary crack.     

Clean steels for steam turbine rotors—their stress corrosion cracking resistance

This work presents the results of a comprehensive study concerning stress corrosion crack growth rates in steam turbine rotor steels exposed to hot water. The effects of stress intensity, temperature, and dissolved gases in the water have been investigated. Special attention has been given to the influence of impurities and alloying elements in the steel such as P, S, Mn, Si, Mo, and Ni, and to the effect of yield strength and fracture toughness on the growth rates of stress corrosion cracks. The results of this study clearly show that there exists a threshold stress intensity of about 20 MNm^−3/2 above which the invariably intergranular stress corrosion cracks grow at a constant, stress-independent velocity. This plateau stress corrosion crack growth rate isnot affected by the oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration in the water. The temperature and the yield strength of the steel have a strong influence on the growth rate of stress corrosion cracks. In contrast, there isno effect of the steel composition within the range investigated, neither of the impurity elements such as P and S, nor of the major alloying elements such as Mn, Si, Mo, and Ni. Steels with low fracture toughness due to temper embrittlement do not exhibit faster stress corrosion crack growth rates in water than nonembrittled steels. No direct relationship between intergranular temper embrittlement and intergranular stress corrosion crack growth in water can be demonstrated.     

Stress Corrosion Cracking in Al-Zn-Mg-Cu Aluminum Alloys in Saline Environments

Stress corrosion cracking of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu (AA7xxx) aluminum alloys exposed to saline environments at temperatures ranging from 293 K to 353 K (20 °C to 80 °C) has been reviewed with particular attention to the influences of alloy composition and temper, and bulk and local environmental conditions. Stress corrosion crack (SCC) growth rates at room temperature for peak- and over-aged tempers in saline environments are minimized for Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys containing less than ~8 wt pct Zn when Zn/Mg ratios are ranging from 2 to 3, excess magnesium levels are less than 1 wt pct, and copper content is either less than ~0.2 wt pct or ranging from 1.3 to 2 wt pct. A minimum chloride ion concentration of ~0.01 M is required for crack growth rates to exceed those in distilled water, which insures that the local solution pH in crack-tip regions can be maintained at less than 4. Crack growth rates in saline solution without other additions gradually increase with bulk chloride ion concentrations up to around 0.6 M NaCl, whereas in solutions with sufficiently low dichromate (or chromate), inhibitor additions are insensitive to the bulk chloride concentration and are typically at least double those observed without the additions. DCB specimens, fatigue pre-cracked in air before immersion in a saline environment, show an initial period with no detectible crack growth, followed by crack growth at the distilled water rate, and then transition to a higher crack growth rate typical of region 2 crack growth in the saline environment. Time spent in each stage depends on the type of pre-crack (“pop-in” vs fatigue), applied stress intensity factor, alloy chemistry, bulk environment, and, if applied, the external polarization. Apparent activation energies (E _a) for SCC growth in Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys exposed to 0.6 M NaCl over the temperatures ranging from 293 K to 353 K (20 °C to 80 °C) for under-, peak-, and over-aged low-copper-containing alloys (<0.2 wt pct) are typically ranging from 80 to 85 kJ/mol, whereas for high-copper-containing alloys (>~0.8 wt pct), they are typically ranging from 20 to 40 kJ/mol for under- and peak-aged alloys, and based on limited data, around 85 kJ/mol for over-aged tempers. This means that crack propagation in saline environments is most likely to occur by a hydrogen-related process for low-copper-containing Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys in under-, peak- and over-aged tempers, and for high-copper alloys in under- and peak-aged tempers. For over-aged high-copper-containing alloys, cracking is most probably under anodic dissolution control. Future stress corrosion studies should focus on understanding the factors that control crack initiation, and insuring that the next generation of higher performance Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys has similar longer crack initiation times and crack propagation rates to those of the incumbent alloys in an over-aged condition where crack rates are less than 1 mm/month at a high stress intensity factor.     

Enhancing the Environmentally Assisted Cracking Resistance of Aircraft Quality Al Alloy of Type AA7075 Stiffened with Polymer Matrix Composite Using Cerium Chloride Inhibitor

This study explores a methodology to raise environmentally assisted cracking resistance of alclad Al–Zn–Mg–Cu (AA7075) alloy, used in aircraft structures, stiffened with polymer matrix composite asymmetric patch in order to suppress growth of fatigue cracks. Fracture mechanics studies of adhesively bonded center-pre-cracked Al alloy specimens having stiffeners were carried out in 3.5 wt% sodium chloride environment to understand the effect of cerium chloride inhibitor on the threshold stress intensity for stress corrosion cracking as well as the second-stage (steady-state) crack growth rate. It was observed that in the peak- and the two-step-aged tempers, the crack growth rate of the alloy reduced by two and a half, and four times, respectively, while the threshold stress intensity increased by 14–15% due to the addition of 1000 ppm of this inhibitor. The study offers a method to enhance significantly life of aging aircrafts stiffened with polymer matrix composite.     

Evolution of Grain Boundary Precipitates in Al 7075 Upon Aging and Correlation with Stress Corrosion Cracking Behavior

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was employed to investigate the microchemistry and microstructure of grain boundary precipitates in Al 7075 aged at room temperature for several hours, at 393 K (120 °C) for 12 hours (under aged), at peak aged (T651) and over aged (T73) conditions. High resolution TEM analysis of precipitates at grain boundaries and fine probe energy dispersive spectrometry showed that the grain boundary precipitates at peak and over aged conditions are hexagonal η phase with stoichiometry Mg(Cu _x Zn_1?x )₂. Considerable increase in Cu content in the grain boundary η in the over aged condition compared to the peak aged condition was observed. The average Cu content in the over aged condition was found to be 20 at. pct. The higher Cu content of the precipitate is associated with a lower stress corrosion cracking plateau velocity.     

Threshold Stress Intensity of Hydrogen-Induced Cracking and Stress Corrosion Cracking of High Strength Steel

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) of highstrength steels in an aqueous solution has been wide-ly investigated[1— 8] .It has long been accepted thatSCC of high strength steel in water is one kind ofhydrogen- induced cracking (HIC) [1— 5] .Because ofhydrolysis of the metal ions,the value p H of the lo-cal environment within a pit,crevice or crack on asteel surface can be decreased to about 3.5 [1] .Be-cause of crack- tip acidification,local conditions arealways favorable for release of hydro…     

What is normal oesophageal motility? An ambulatory study

BACKGROUND: Ultrasound can cause microbubble destruction. If microbubbles are administered as a continuous infusion, then their destruction within the myocardium and measurement of their myocardial reappearance rate at steady state will provide a measure of mean myocardial microbubble velocity. Conversely, measurement of their myocardial concentration at steady state will provide an assessment of microvascular cross-sectional area. Myocardial blood flow (MBF) can then be calculated from the product of the two. METHODS AND RESULTS: Ex vivo and in vitro experiments were performed in which either flow was held constant and pulsing interval (interval between microbubble destruction and replenishment) was altered, or vice versa. In vivo experiments were performed in 21 dogs. In group 1 dogs (n=7), MBF was mechanically altered in a model in which coronary blood volume was constant. In group 2 dogs (n=5), MBF was altered by direct coronary infusions of vasodilators. In group 3 dogs (n=9), non-flow-limiting coronary stenoses were created, and MBF was measured before and after the venous administration of a coronary vasodilator. In all experiments, microbubbles were delivered as a constant infusion, and myocardial contrast echocardiography was performed using different pulsing intervals. The myocardial video intensity versus pulsing interval plots were fitted to an exponential function: y=A(1-e[-betat]), where A is the plateau video intensity reflecting the microvascular cross-sectional area, and beta reflects the rate of rise of video intensity and, hence, microbubble velocity. Excellent correlations were found between flow and beta, as well as flow and the product of A and beta. CONCLUSIONS: MBF can be quantified with myocardial contrast echocardiography during a venous infusion of microbubbles. This novel approach has potential for measuring tissue perfusion in any organ accessible to ultrasound.     

High-Temperature Creep Degradation of the AM1/NiAlPt/EBPVD YSZ System

The failure mechanisms of a NiAlPt/electron beam physical vapor deposition yttria-stabilized-zirconia thermal barrier coating system deposited on the AM1 single crystalline substrate have been investigated under pure creep conditions in the temperature range from 1273 K to 1373 K (1000 °C to 1100 °C) and for durations up to 1000 hours. Doubly tapered specimens were used allowing for the analysis of different stress states and different accumulated viscoplastic strains for a given creep condition. Under such experiments, two kinds of damage mechanisms were observed. Under low applied stress conditions (i.e., long creep tests), microcracking is localized in the vicinity of the thermally grown oxide (TGO). Under high applied stress conditions, an unconventional failure mechanism at the substrate/bond coat interface is observed because of large creep strains and fast creep deformation, hence leading to a limited TGO growth. This unconventional failure mechanism is observed although the interfacial bond coat/top coat TGO thickening is accelerated by the mechanical applied stress beyond a given stress threshold.     

The effect of copper content and heat treatment on the stress corrosion characteristics of Ai-6Zn-2Mg-X Cu alloys

The effect of copper and aging on the stress corrosion characteristics of Al-6 pct Zn-2 pct Mg-(0.01-2.1) pct Cu alloys in 3.5 pct NaCl was studied with other variables remaining constant. In the peak-strength condition the crack velocity in the stress-independent region decreased by two orders of magnitude when copper was increased from 0.01 to 2.1 pct. In the stress-dependent region crack velocity decreased only for copper contents higher than 1 pct. Overaging further reduced the plateau crack velocity in all the alloys studied. The results are interpreted on the basis of the effects of copper and aging on the deformation mechanism and electrochemical activity of the phases.     

Investigation on Mechanical and Adhesive Wear Behavior of Centrifugally Cast Functionally Graded Copper/SiC Metal Matrix Composite

The objective of this work is to fabricate functionally graded unreinforced copper alloy (Cu–10Sn) and a Cu–10Sn/SiC composite (Ø_out100 × Ø_in70 × 100 mm) by horizontal centrifugal casting process and to investigate its mechanical and tribological properties. The microstructure and hardness was analysed along the radial direction of the castings; tensile test was conducted at both inner and outer zones. Microstructural evaluation of composite indicated that the reinforcement particles formed a gradient structure across the radial direction and maximum reinforcement concentration was found at the inner periphery. Hence maximum hardness (205 HV) was observed at this surface. Tensile test results showed that, the tensile strength at inner zone of composite was observed to be higher (248 MPa) compared to that of the outer zone and unreinforced alloy. As mechanical properties showed better results at inner periphery, dry sliding wear experiments were carried out on the inner periphery of composite using pin-on-disc tribometer. Process parameters such as load (10–30 N), sliding distance (500–1500 m) and sliding velocity (1–3 m/s) were analyzed by Taguchi L₂₇ orthogonal array. The influence of parameters on wear rate was analyzed by signal-to-noise ratio and analysis of variance. Analysis results revealed that load (54%) had the highest effect on wear rate followed by sliding distance (18.2%) and sliding velocity (3.7%). The wear rate of composite increased with load and sliding distance, but decreased with sliding velocity. Regression equation was developed and was validated by confirmatory experiment. Worn surface of composite was observed using scanning electron microscopy and transition of wear was observed at all extreme conditions.     

A method to evaluate the critical hydrogen concentration for hydrogen-induced crack propagation

During the investigation of hydrogen embrittlement of the low alloy high strength steel 90 MnV 8, a method was developed to evaluate the threshold hydrogen concentration for crack propagation. A fatigue precracked CT-specimen, stressed with constant load, was cathodically charged with hydrogen from the rear. Based on the numerical solution of the diffusion problem in a stress field, the critical hydrogen concentration was calculated from the incubation time of crack growth. Permeation experiments yielded data about the apparent diffusion coefficient and solubility of hydrogen. The computed critical concentrations are independent of the stress intensity factor and are, for various martensitic microstructures, in the range of 0.1–10 g atom/m³.     

Threshold Stress Creep Behavior of Alloy 617 at Intermediate Temperatures

Creep of Alloy 617, a solid solution Ni-Cr-Mo alloy, was studied in the temperature range of 1023 K to 1273 K (750 °C to 1000 °C). Typical power-law creep behavior with a stress exponent of approximately 5 is observed at temperatures from 1073 K to 1273 K (800 °C to 1000 °C). Creep at 1023 K (750 °C), however, exhibits threshold stress behavior coinciding with the temperature at which a low volume fraction of ordered coherent γ′ precipitates forms. The threshold stress is determined experimentally to be around 70 MPa at 1023 K (750 °C) and is verified to be near zero at 1173 K (900 °C)—temperatures directly correlating to the formation and dissolution of γ′ precipitates, respectively. The γ′ precipitates provide an obstacle to continued dislocation motion and result in the presence of a threshold stress. TEM analysis of specimens crept at 1023 K (750 °C) to various strains, and modeling of stresses necessary for γ′ precipitate dislocation bypass, suggests that the climb of dislocations around the γ′ precipitates is the controlling factor for continued deformation at the end of primary creep and into the tertiary creep regime. As creep deformation proceeds at an applied stress of 121 MPa and the precipitates coarsen, the stress required for Orowan bowing is reached and this mechanism becomes active. At the minimum creep rate at an applied stress of 145 MPa, the finer precipitate size results in higher Orowan bowing stresses and the creep deformation is dominated by the climb of dislocations around the γ′ precipitates.     

Environmentally Assisted Cracking of Alloy 7050-T7451 Exposed to Aqueous Chloride Solutions

The stress corrosion cracking (SCC) behavior of 7050-T7451 plate material was investigated in short-transverse direction performing constant load and constant extension rate tests. Smooth and notched tensile specimens were permanently immersed in substitute ocean water and in an aqueous solution of 0.6 M NaCl + 0.06 M (NH₄)₂SO₄. Alloy 7050-T7451 exhibited high SCC resistance in both synthetic environments. However, conducting cyclic loading tests, environment-induced cracking was observed. Applying a sawtooth waveform, notched tensile specimens were strained under constant load amplitude conditions at constant displacement rates ranging from 2 × 10^?6 to 2 × 10^?4 mms^?1. The stress ratio R = σ _min/σ _max was 0.1 with maximum stresses of 300 and 400 MPa. When cyclically loaded in substitute ocean water, notched specimens failed predominantly by transgranular environment-induced cracking. Striations were observed on the cleavage-like facets. The number of cycles-to-failure decreased with decreasing displacement rate. A slope of 0.5 was obtained by fitting the logarithmic plot of number of cycles-to-failure vs nominal loading frequency, indicating a hydrogen embrittlement mechanism controlled by diffusion.     

Influence of corrosive environments on near-threshold fatigue crack growth in 403 stainless steel

The near-threshold fatigue crack growth behavior of 403 stainless steel has been investigated in low O₂ steam (<1 ppm), high O₂ steam (40 ppm), and boiling water with various concentrations of NaCl and Na₂SO₄ at a test frequency of 160 Hz. High O₂ steam tends to increase the crack propagation rates in the threshold region, relative to low O₂ steam. Values of threshold stress intensity range, ΔK_th, slightly increase with an increase in the concentration of NaCl in the solution. During threshold crack growth, the percentage of intergranularity decreases with a decrease inAK. Varying pH from 5.0 to 10.0 in a 0.1 gm NaCl plus 1.0 gm Na₂SO₄ per 100 ml H₂O solution does not affect the rates of near-threshold crack propagation. However, increasing the hydrazine level from 30 to 10⁷ ppb in the same salt solution enhances the resistance to crack growth while reducing the percentage of intergranular fracture to nearly zero.     

Flow Behaviour of Modified 9Cr–1Mo Steel at Elevated Temperatures

In this investigation, the flow behaviour of modified 9Cr–1Mo steel at elevated temperatures is reported. To understand the flow behaviour of the steel, tensile tests were performed at nominal strain rate of 3 × 10^?3 s^?1 and temperatures in the range of 300–823 K. The yield strength and ultimate tensile strength were found to decrease with increase in temperature with a plateau in a intermediate temperature regime (523–673 K). Serrations were also observed in the tensile curve at intermediate temperatures which caused plateau/peak in tensile behaviour of material and was a typical manifestation of dynamic strain ageing. An attempt was made to represent the flow behaviour of the material using different constitutive equations viz., Hollomon, Ludwik, Swift, Ludwigson and Voce. It was observed that the Voce equation could describe the experimental flow curve at different temperatures quite well. Instantaneous work hardening rate with respect to flow stress exhibited two stages of hardening especially at relatively lower temperatures.     

Experimental Investigations on Slurry Erosion Behaviour of HVOF and HVOLF Sprayed Coatings on Hydraulic Turbine Steel

Slurry erosion behaviour of high velocity oxy fuel (HVOF) and high velocity oxy liquid fuel (HVOLF) sprayed coatings on hydraulic turbine material (i.e. CA6NM steel) was investigated at different levels of various parameters. The 50 % (WC–Co–Cr) and 50 % (Ni–Cr–B–Si) coating powder was deposited on CA6NM steel samples by HVOF and HVOLF thermal spraying techniques. Erosion tests were conducted on self-made erosion test rig with various factors as explained in the "experimentation" section. Coated and uncoated samples of CA6NM steel were investigated by following a design of experiments based on the L₉ Taguchi technique, which was used to obtain the data of erosion test in a controlled way. Four parameters used in L₉ experiment were velocity, impact angle, slurry concentration and average particle size. The study revealed that the velocity, impact angle and slurry concentration were most significant among various parameters, influencing the wear rate of the coatings. The average particle size did not show any significant effect on both the coatings. In comparison, coated samples showed approximately two times better results in erosion resistance than uncoated samples. Scanning electron microscopy of eroded surface showed different mechanisms of erosion on different samples under various conditions.     

Relationship between hydrogen-assisted crack propagation rate and the corresponding crack path in AISI 4340 steel

In the present investigation, relationship between hydrogen-assisted (HA) crack propagation rate and the corresponding fracture mode in AISI 4340 steel has been elucidated with critical hydrogen concentration concept. Hydrogen assisted crack-propagation rate and the corresponding fracture surface morphology were determined from double cantilever beam (DCB) specimens as a function of hydrogen pressure and temperature. As hydrogen pressure decreased, threshold stress intensity factor necessary for the onset of hydrogen-assisted crack propagation increased and the stage II (plateau) crack-propagation rate decreased. The kinetics of stage II crack propagation indicated substantial difference, i.e., positive and negative responses in the two investigated low and high temperature regions, respectively. Fractographic analysis showed that increased amounts of the microvoid coalescence mode resulted in slower crack-propagation rates. The observed changes in crack-propagation rate and the corresponding fracture mode with hydrogen pressure and temperature are discussed in terms of critical stress or strain and critical hydrogen concentration concepts.     

Creep and Stress Relaxation Anisotropy of a Single-Crystal Superalloy

In this study, the TMF stress relaxation and creep behavior at 1023 K and 1223 K (750 °C and 950 °C) have been investigated for a Ni-based single-crystal superalloy. Specimens with three different crystal orientations along their axes were tested; 〈001〉, 〈011〉, and 〈111〉, respectively. A highly anisotropic behavior during TMF stress relaxation was found where the 〈111〉 direction significantly shows the worst properties of all directions. The TMF stress relaxation tests were performed in both tension and compression and the results indicate a clear tension/compression asymmetry for all directions where the greatest asymmetry was observed for the 〈001〉 direction at 1023 K (750 °C); here the creep rate was ten times higher in compression than tension. This study also shows that TMF cycling seems to influence the creep rate during stress relaxation temporarily, but after some time it decreases again and adapts to the pre-unloading creep rate. Creep rates from the TMF stress relaxation tests are also compared to conventional constant load creep rates and a good agreement is found.