A Bayesian approach to modeling and predicting pitting flaws in steam generator tubes

Steam generators in nuclear power plants have experienced varying degrees of under-deposit pitting corrosion. A probabilistic model to accurately predict pitting damage is necessary for effective life-cycle management of steam generators. This paper presents an advanced probabilistic model of pitting corrosion characterizing the inherent randomness of the pitting process and measurement uncertainties of the in-service inspection (ISI) data obtained from eddy current (EC) inspections. A Markov chain Monte Carlo simulation-based Bayesian method, enhanced by a data augmentation technique, is developed for estimating the model parameters. The proposed model is able to predict the actual pit number, the actual pit depth as well as the maximum pit depth, which is the main interest of the pitting corrosion model. The study also reveals the significance of inspection uncertainties in the modeling of pitting flaws using the ISI data: Without considering the probability-of-detection issues and measurement errors, the leakage risk resulted from the pitting corrosion would be under-estimated, despite the fact that the actual pit depth would usually be over-estimated.     

The effect of pit size and density on the fatigue behaviour of a pre‐corroded martensitic stainless steel

UNS S17400 steel is used in turbines for the aerospace and utility industries. While it is generally corrosion resistant, it is susceptible to pitting when exposed to aqueous chloride environments. Effects of pitting characteristics, such as depth, width, and local density on fatigue life, have been studied in this work to better inform criteria for component replacement or repair. While pit depth correlates well with cracking, the deepest pit never initiated the crack that ultimately led to failure. The clustering of pits, or local pitting density, also correlated well with crack initiation location; however, the densest region of pitting was not always the location where cracking occurred. There is likely no single metric that directly correlates pitting with fatigue cracking, rather there is a combination of pitting characteristics that ultimately lead to cracking. The results from this work suggest that pit depth and local pitting density are among the more important metrics.     

A predictive model for life assessment of automotive exhaust mufflers subject to internal corrosion failure due to exhaust gas condensation

A study has been presented on pitting corrosion on internal walls of automotive exhaust muffler due to exhaust gas condensation. The problem mainly exists in the rear section of the exhaust system close to the tail end pipe such as the muffler, especially when the temperature of the muffler does not go up during short distance run or winter. The water vapour condenses on the muffler's inner wall in the form of water droplets. The dissolution of corrosive gases coming from the internal combustion of engine as well as condensation of low-pH acidic vapours in the water droplet can cause severe pitting corrosion on standard exhaust steel. In this work, an experiment is reported for internal corrosion, by using mufflers as test bed subjected to different environmental conditions. Based on observations, a mechanistic model has been developed which involves three main techniques: (i) the dropwise condensation technique predicts the condensation rate and is based on heat and mass transfer theory, (ii) the species breakdown in the droplet is established through the main thermodynamic and chemical equilibrium, and (iii) the pitting corrosion involving pit depth is predicted using electrochemical kinetic reactions, species transport and chemical reactions occurring inside the droplet. Lastly, the accuracy of the model has been validated by comparison between experimental and predicted results showing good agreement.     

Experimental Design: A Chemometric Approach

In this article we develop statistical extreme-value theory as a method to validate and improve experiments with extremal responses, and to extrapolate and compare results. Our main motivation is corrosion tests performed at Volvo Car Company. Localized, or “pitting,” corrosion can limit the usefulness of aluminum, magnesium, and other new lightweight materials and makes judicious choice of alloys and surface treatments necessary. Standard methods for evaluating corrosion tests are based on weight loss due to corrosion and ANOVA. These methods fail in two ways. The first is that it usually is not weight loss but the risk of perforation (i.e., the depth of the deepest pit) that is of interest. The second is that the standard ANOVA assumption of homogeneity of variances typically is not satisfied by pit depth measurements, and that normality does not give credible extrapolation into extreme tails.     

Laser confocal microscopic study of pH profiles of synthetic absorbable fibers upon in vitro hydrolytic degradation

The objective of this study was to develop a new and non-destructive technique to measure the interior pH of synthetic absorbable biomaterials. Such a measurement would provide the required experimental evidence for validating the postulated theory that the accumulation of acidic hydrolytic degradation products within the interior of aliphatic polyesters is responsible for the observed accelerated degradation of this class of absorbable biomaterials. This new technique used a laser scanning confocal microscope coupled with pH sensitive fluorescent dyes like Texas Red sulfonyl chloride. The capability of optical thin sectioning of a laser confocal microscope would permit a non-destructive examination of the interior of biomaterials. Poly-p-dioxanone suture fibers (PDSII) of size 2/0 were used as the model compound for this new technique. The pH values of the unhydrolyzed and partially hydrolyzed PDSII fibers were found to decrease with increasing depth from the fiber surface and reached as low as about 3.5 at 70 microm depth. The largest depth that an interior pH could be measured within absorbable biomaterials was determined by the opacity of the biomaterials, i.e. a higher depth for a less opaque material. The observed interior pH profiles were correlated to the unique morphologic structure of PDSII fibers.     

Study on the corrosion residual strength of the 1.0 wt.% Ce modified AZ91 magnesium alloy

The effect of corrosion on the tensile behaviour of the 1.0 wt.% Ce modified AZ91 magnesium alloy was investigated by the immersion of the test bar in 3.5 wt.% NaCl aqueous solution for 0, 12, 40, 108, 204, 372 and 468 h with the subsequent tensile tests in this paper. The fractography was analyzed by scanning electron microscopy. The results show that pitting corrosion should be responsible for the drop of the corrosion residual strength within the testing time. The depth of the corrosion pits was statistically and quantitatively obtained by an optical microscopy and the maximal value was recorded as the extreme depth of the corrosion pit. Furthermore, the corrosion residual strength is linearly dependent on the extreme depth of the corrosion pit, which can be attributed to the loss of cross-sectional area and the emergence of stress concentration caused by the initiation and development of corrosion pits.     

Confocal simultaneous phase-shifting interferometry

In order to implement the ultraprecise measurement with large range and long working distance in confocal microscopy, confocal simultaneous phase-shifting interferometry (C-SPSI) has been presented. Four channel interference signals, with π/2 phase shift between each other, are detected simultaneously in C-SPSI. The actual surface height is then calculated by combining the optical sectioning with the phase unwrapping in the main cycle of the interference phase response, and the main cycle is determined using the bipolar property of differential confocal microscopy. Experimental results showed that 1?nm of axial depth resolution was achieved for either low- or high-NA objective lenses. The reflectivity disturbance resistibility of C-SPSI was demonstrated by imaging a typical microcircuit specimen. C-SPSI breaks through the restriction of low NA on the axial depth resolution of confocal microscopy effectively.     

Depth elemental imaging of forensic samples by confocal micro-XRF method

Micro-XRF is a significant tool for the analysis of small regions. A micro-X-ray beam can be created in the laboratory by various focusing X-ray optics. Previously, nondestructive 3D-XRF analysis had not been easy because of the high penetration of fluorescent X-rays emitted into the sample. A recently developed confocal micro-XRF technique combined with polycapillary X-ray lenses enables depth-selective analysis. In this paper, we applied a new tabletop confocal micro-XRF system to analyze several forensic samples, that is, multilayered automotive paint fragments and leather samples, for use in the criminaliztics. Elemental depth profiles and mapping images of forensic samples were successfully obtained by the confocal micro-XRF technique. Multilayered structures can be distinguished in forensic samples by their elemental depth profiles. However, it was found that some leather sheets exhibited heterogeneous distribution. To confirm the validity, the result of a conventional micro-XRF of the cross section was compared with that of the confocal micro-XRF. The results obtained by the confocal micro-XRF system were in approximate agreement with those obtained by the conventional micro-XRF. Elemental depth imaging was performed on the paint fragments and leather sheets to confirm the homogeneity of the respective layers of the sample. The depth images of the paint fragment showed homogeneous distribution in each layer expect for Fe and Zn. In contrast, several components in the leather sheets were predominantly localized.     

Effect of pitting corrosion on fatigue crack initiation and fatigue life

Fatigue crack initiation and growth from artificial pits of different depths has been studied. To analyze the experimental results a simple three-dimensional fracture-mechanical model has been developed. The model shows very good agreement with experiments including for small cracks, in describing the initiation and growth of a fatigue crack emanating from a pit and in predicting the dependence of reduction of fatigue life on pit size. Based on experimental data an empirical relation between the depth of the corrosion pit and the fatigue life has been established. Also, a microradiographic method for pitting corrosion depth determination has been described.     

Extraction of the characteristics of Si nanocrystals by the charge pumping technique

In this paper, the characteristics of silicon nanocrystals used as charge trapping centers in memory devices are examined using the two-level charge pumping (CP) technique performed as a function of frequency and energy filtered transmission electron microscopy (EFTEM). The parameters extracted from the two methods such as the depth location, density and effective diameter of the nanocrystals are in good quantitative agreement. These results validate the charge pumping approach as a non-destructive powerful technique to access most of the properties of nanocrystals embedded in dielectrics and located at injection distances from the substrate surface not limited to the direct tunneling regime.     

Simulation of surface pitting due to contact loading

A computational model for simulation of surface pitting of mechanical elements subjected to rolling and sliding contact conditions is presented. The two-dimensional computational model is restricted to modelling of high-precision mechanical components with fine surface finishing and good lubrication, where the cracks leading to pitting are initiated in the area of largest contact stresses at certain depth under the contacting surface. Hertz contact conditions with addition of friction forces are assumed and the position and magnitude of the maximum equivalent stress is determined by the finite element method. When the maximum equivalent stress exceeds the local material strength, it is assumed that the initial crack develops along the slip line in a single-crystal grain. The Virtual Crack Extension method in the framework of finite element analysis is then used for two-dimensional simulation of the fatigue crack propagation under contact loading from the initial crack up to the formation of the surface pit. The pit shapes and relationships between the stress intensity factor and crack length are determined for various combinations of contacting surface curvatures and loadings. The model is applied to simulation of surface pitting of two meshing gear teeth. Numerically predicted pit shapes in the face of gear teeth show a good agreement with the experimental observations. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Pitting behavior of SiCp/2024 Al metal matrix composites

The effects of the volume fraction of SiC particulate reinforcements and the concentration of chloride ions in solution on the localized corrosion characteristics of SiCp/2024 Al metal matrix composites (MMC) were investigated. A scanning micro reference electrode (SMRE) technique was employed to study the dynamic process of pitting initiation and development on the surface of the composites at open-circuit potential. Potentiodynamic polarizations were performed to characterize the electrochemical behavior of the MMCs. The morphology of the localized attack on the MMC sample after corrosion tests were examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results of electrochemical measurement showed that the composites were less resistant to pit initiation than the corresponding unreinforced metrix alloy. Increase in the volume fraction of SiCp reinforcement in the SiCp/2024 Al composites resulted in a significant decrease of pitting potential. In situ potential mapping of active centers on the surfaces of the composites revealed that local breakdown of passivity and initiation of micro pitting corrosion could take place even at an open-circuit potential which was more negative than the pitting potential, and the number of active centers on the surfaces of the composites increased as the volume fraction of SiC particulates in MMCs increased. Micro-structural analysis indicated that pitting attack on the composites mainly occurred at SiCp-Al interfaces or inclusions-Al interfaces.     

稀土处理对Mn-V-Ti钢点蚀性能影响的研究

实验室冶炼了5炉稀土处理及未处理的锰系低合金船体钢,并收集了一种工业生产的同种钢。通过冶金分析、极化试验、闭塞电池试验及挂片试验,研究了夹杂物变性对钢材点蚀诱发及扩展的影响;结果表明:钢中夹杂物是点蚀的诱发源,硫化物夹杂物的数量对钢材的点蚀性能有显著影响。稀土硫化物夹杂数量少,体积小,能显著降低钢的点蚀诱发敏感性,降低钢的蚀坑扩展速度,提高钢的耐蚀性。     

Root cause analysis for 316L stainless steel tube leakages

Perforation of ASTM A270 TP316L stainless steel tube, used for transportation of ozonated high purity water in a pharmaceutical plant, was discovered after 3 months in actual service. The current investigation was conducted in order to explore the root causes of failure. Various techniques including on-site investigation, emission spectroscopy, ion chromatography, radioscopy, optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectroscopy, and intergranular corrosion testing were implemented for failure analysis of the tube components. The results revealed that the perforation of tube was initiated from the outer wall and extended to the inner wall by pitting corrosion. The stagnant state of chloride-containing water was the main reason for inducing such corrosion attack. The weld metal was the most susceptible to corrosion attack leading to perforation of the wall thickness, although initiation sites of pitting corrosion were also observed in the base metal. The dimensions of each pit mouth are very small, but enlarged subsurface cavities were observed. The selective dissolution of material due to galvanic effects between delta-ferrite and the austenite matrix occurred in the weld zone. It is suggested that failure prevention could be achieved by controlling the quality of the insulation system. In addition, careful control of welding conditions must be implemented during fabrication.     

齿轮故障振动信号非高斯性特征趋势分析

以齿轮箱实测振动信号为对象,对齿轮点蚀故障发展过程深入研究。通过Gabor滤波仅保留振动信号的边带成分与随机成分;据双谱分析结果研究信号非线性、非高斯性变化,并提取非高斯性强度特征值;在故障趋势分析中利用“3σ准则”设定故障阈值。结果表明,非高斯性强度特征值对齿轮点蚀故障较敏感,可揭示故障发展变化趋势,有利于齿轮故障报警及寿命预测,对齿轮传动系统状态监测与故障诊断具有实际意义。     

The EIFS distribution for anodized and pre-corroded 7010-T7651 under constant amplitude loading

This paper reports results from SICAS, an experimental programme to evaluate the effectiveness of the equivalent initial flaw size (EIFS) approach in managing the structural integrity effects of pitting corrosion. Fatigue crack growth and life tests were conducted on anodized and pre‐corroded 7010‐T7651. The corrosion pits that initiated fatigue were then measured using the SEM. These data were analysed statistically to identify the pit geometric parameter(s) that influenced fatigue life. Projected pit area had the strongest effect, while pit depth and pit width were each statistically insignificant. The EIFS distribution for corroded 7010‐T7651 was then calculated. Examination of the probability distribution of the ratio of EIFS area to pit area allowed the derivation of a scatter factor that gave safely conservative fatigue life predictions for the corroded material.     

微观组织对0Cr17Ni4Cu4Nb马氏体不锈钢的耐点腐蚀性能的影响

采用化学浸泡法和模拟闭塞电池方法研究了固溶+时效和固溶+调整+时效处理的0Cr17Ni4Cu4Nb马氏体不锈钢的耐点腐蚀性能,并与18-8型奥氏体不锈钢(316L)耐点蚀性能进行了对比。结果表明,0Cr17Ni4Cu4Nb马氏体不锈钢组织内富Cu析出相促进了点蚀坑萌生,而点蚀坑发展则与组织形貌有关。固溶+调整+时效处理的0Cr17Ni4Cu4Nb马氏体不锈钢因组织内析出富Cu相多而大,其萌生的点蚀坑密度较高,但由于马氏体板条较细,其点蚀坑尺寸和深度较小;固溶+时效处理的0Cr17Ni4Cu4Nb马氏体不锈钢因组织内析出富Cu相少而小,萌生的点蚀坑密度较低,但粗大的板条马氏体组织导致点蚀坑尺寸和深度较大。与18-8型奥氏体不锈钢耐点蚀性能对比表明,通过对0Cr17Ni4Cu4Nb马氏体不锈钢进行合理的热处理,其耐点蚀性能可与18-8型奥氏体不锈钢相当。     

Application of atomic force microscopy to the study of glass decay

Conventional methods such as scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry are commonly used to characterize corroded glasses. However, their use is often restricted when glass pieces come from historical artworks and may not be damaged. Atomic force microscopy can be an alternative method for characterizing such glasses since it is an essentially non-destructive technique which allows their topographic analysis with good vertical and lateral resolutions. In addition, samples do not require any previous manipulation. The application of atomic force microscopy to study glass decay is reported in this paper. The main goals of the research were to study the corroded texture of both historical glass pieces and model glasses weathered in the laboratory, and to determine and compare the chemical corrosion mechanisms which occurred in both cases. The resulting data suggest that atomic force microscopy can be a useful technique for characterizing decay mechanisms in historical glasses.     

点蚀损伤下海洋平台结构剩余强度的多尺度分析方法

均匀腐蚀损伤影响结构承载力的研究已趋于成熟,但点蚀损伤影响整体结构承载力的规律及其局部损伤的演化行为仍不明确。该文采用均匀分布的圆柱体点蚀损伤模型,探讨在宏观结构尺度中点蚀损伤的描述、多尺度区域的划分和跨尺度界面的连接以及结构非线性的求解方法,提出了研究考虑细观尺度点蚀损伤的海洋平台结构多尺度模型的构建和计算方法。计算结果表明:该文提出的多尺度模型构建策略有效地解决了细观尺度点蚀损伤在宏观结构尺度中的描述问题,且所建多尺度模型能够体现点蚀损伤削弱结构极限承载力的规律,为评估在役海洋平台结构的剩余强度提供了可行的方法。