Sex role orientation and self-esteem: A critical meta-analytic review.

Research on the relation between sex-role orientation and psychological well-being has been guided by 1 of 3 models. The traditional congruence model holds that psychological well-being is fostered only when one's sex-role orientation is congruent with one's gender; the androgyny model proposes that well-being is maximized when one's sex-role orientation incorporates a high degree of both masculinity and femininity regardless of one's gender; the masculinity model posits that well-being is a function of the extent to which one has a masculine sex-role orientation. The adequacy of the models was tested by meta-analysis of 35 studies of the relation between sex-role orientation and self-esteem, the indicator of psychological well-being most widely used in sex-role studies. Results of the analysis are most supportive of the masculinity model and showed that the strength of observed relations between sex-role orientation and self-esteem varied as a function of both the sex-role measure and the type of self-esteem measure used in the studies. Methodological issues are identified that should be taken into consideration in future research. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

New formulations of sex roles and androgyny: A critical review.

Reviews new measures of sex role orientation that do not assume a unidimensional continuum model of masculinity and femininity, particularly with respect to androgyny [e.g., Bem Sex-Role Inventory, 1974; the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (J. T. Spence, et al, 1975); the Personality Research Form ANDRO Scale (D. N. Jackson, 1967); and masculinity and femininity scales from the Adjective Check List [A. B. Heilbrun, 1976]). Studies intended to validate the constructs are also discussed. Although based on similar conceptualizations of sex-role characteristics, the scales differ psychometrically, and measurement questions are discussed. Negatively valued sex-correlated characteristics, differences in the relative social utility of masculine- and feminine-typed behaviors, differential performance of sex-role categories in more complex social situations, and parental practices related to the new formulations appear to be important areas for future sex-role research. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measures of psychological masculinity and femininity: A comment on Gaddy, Glass, and Arnkoff.

C. D. Gaddy et al (see record 1983-30152-001) studied the relationship between women's sex-role identity and career decisions. The ANDRO scales of the Personality Research Form were used to assess sex-role identity. This use of measures of psychological masculinity and femininity, which is not uncommon, is questioned by the present author in view of recent advances in the field. Basically, the assumption that scales labeled "masculine" and "feminine" are reliable and valid measures of sex roles, sex-role identity, sex-role orientation, or sex-role beliefs and behavior is viewed as untenable. Researchers are urged to consider extant measures of masculinity and femininity as assessing the socially desirable personality traits of instrumentality (self-assertion) and expressiveness (nurturance/interpersonal concern), respectively. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological androgyny: Theories, methods, and conclusions.

Methodological and conceptual problems in existing psychological androgyny research are illuminated by application of the 2-way ANOVA model, which views masculinity and femininity as a pair of crossed independent variables, with androgynous, male-typed, female-typed, and undifferentiated sex-role categories represented in the cells of the resultant 2-by-2 table. Foremost among previously overlooked theoretical points is that the J. T. Spence et al (see record 1975-27536-001) "high/high" and the S. L. Bem (see record 1974-27631-001) "balance" androgyny formulations represent 2 independent hypotheses, a main effects hypothesis and an interaction hypothesis. Androgyny research findings are summarized in terms of the effects and interaction predicted by these theories. There is no evidence of consistent interaction effects favoring the balanced over the sex typed. Furthermore, the consistency and strength of the masculinity effect relative to the femininity effect suggest that masculinity rather than main effects androgyny predicts psychological well-being. The data provide no support for the traditional model that masculinity is best for men and femininity best for women. (107 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Creativity, masculinity, femininity, and three models of psychological androgyny.

Five empirically derived indices of creative self-concept correlated positively with several indices of psychological masculinity in 85 female and 105 male undergraduates and somewhat negatively with indices of psychological femininity among males and females. Among the measures used were the Bem Sex-Role Inventory and Adjective Check List. Production on the Alternate Uses Test correlated positively with masculinity and negatively with femininity in a subset of 50 males explicitly instructed to "be creative." As a reflection of this positive association between masculinity and creativity indices, Ss defined as masculine or androgynous, using conventional median-split methods, obtained significantly higher creativity indices than conventionally defined feminine or unclassifiable Ss. Results are discussed in terms of (a) the applicability of balance, additive, and multiplicative models of androgyny to the study of creativity; (b) the factorial complexity of several currently used masculinity and femininity scales; and (c) possible conflicts between sex-role expectations and the self-concepts of creative females and apparent congruencies between sex-role expectations and the self-concepts of creative males. (85 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Facial attractiveness, physique, and sex role identity in young children.

Examined the effects of facial attractiveness and physique on sex-role identity and constancy in 74 middle-class 3-9 yr olds. Measures included Ss' sex-role orientation, sex-role preference, sex-role adoption, parent salience, gender recognition, and sex-role constancy. Ratings for facial attractiveness and the ponderal index for body type were completed for each S. Analysis of variance using age, sex, and facial attractiveness as factors revealed no significant main effects for facial attractiveness on any of the measures. Interactions did appear, however, for Sex * Attractiveness * Age on sex-role adoption and for Facial Attractiveness * Sex on gender recognition. Analyses of variance for physique effects resulted in significant interactions of Physique Type * Age on both gender recognition and sex-role preference. Sex differences were present for sex-role orientation, preference, adoption, and parent salience, but not for gender recognition or sex-role constancy. Age differences appeared for sex-role orientation, preference, adoption, constancy, and gender recognition. Overall results fail to support the hypothesis that physical attractiveness and body stereotypes significantly influence sex-role development. It is concluded that these attributes may influence a child's perception of others, but they do not necessarily affect the child's gender assignment of others. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Androgyny and helping behavior.

Suggests that sex differences found in previous studies of how bystanders' help in emergency situations may have been due to Ss' following sex-role expectations for this type of situation. To study this possibility, 78 male and 82 female undergraduates, classified by the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) as either androgynous or sex-typed, participated in an experiment in which a "victim" choked on food. Ss were either alone with the victim, with 4 other same-sex confederates, or with 4 other mixed-sex confederates. Data on speed of helping and/or proportion of Ss helping show (a) more help by males than by females, (b) more help in S-alone conditions than in larger group conditions, and (c) more help by androgynous than by sex-typed Ss. The pattern of direct, indirect, or no help differed between sex-typed males and females but not between androgynous males and females. Questionnaire data support the notion of diffusion of responsibility for the group-size effect for helping. Several of the sex effects suggested that instrumental competence is the crucial variable in dealing with emergencies. Results also suggest that such competence is due to masculinity rather than sex per se. Findings provide substantial construct validation for androgyny theory and for the BSRI as a measure of androgyny. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Confessions of a reluctant ideologist.

Examined 2 ideological perspectives (one assuming that the sexes differ, with females basically inferior to males, and the other assuming that any differences are the result of differential social learning) in the context of 3 bodies of literature—sex differences, sex-role stereotyping in therapy, and androgyny. Data in support of each ideological position are presented. The reactivity of psychological data to these theory orientations is explored, and it is hypothesized that prevailing ideologies produce supporting empiricism. Thus, it is argued that the major source of variance in psychological research is less a result of the manipulation of independent variables than it is a function of the ideological substructure underlying the research. Also determined are the alternative criteria that might be employed to assess the relative merits of competing ideological frameworks if the validity of an ideology cannot be established empirically. (French abstract) (58 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex role identity in young adults: Its parental antecedents and relation to ego development.

Examined how ego development and socialization experience interact in relation to sex-role identity (SRI). 60 male and 60 female 22–26 yr olds completed the Bem Sex-Role Inventory and J. H. Block's (unpublished) childrearing practices report. Both measures were scaled so as to yield scores on agency, communion, and androgyny. Ss also completed the Sentence Completion Test of Ego Development. Analyses revealed that the predictive power of the variables differed by sex. Ego development was predictive of SRI in males but not females, whereas socialization practices were predictive of SRI in females but not males. Results support N. Chodorow's (1974) position regarding the differing socialization experiences of men and women. (49 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex-role stereotypy and professional intervention for childhood gender disturbance.

The treatment of choice for transsexualism and transvestism is early identification and prevention, but the treatment of children with gender disturbances raises potential risks associated with the arbitrary nature of some sex-role distinctions in our culture. Potential risks are weighed against the potential benefits in the treatment of gender-disturbed boys. The psychological profession should promote greater social tolerance for individuals with deviant sex roles and individual tolerance in children for androgyny in their own sex roles. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in the functional linkage between androgyny, social cognition, and competence.

In Study 1 with 251 male and 389 female undergraduates, androgynous females reported higher self-esteem and were more competent in the judgment of others (Adjective Check List) than any other sex-role type. Study 2 (48 males and 86 females) hypothesized that superior social cognition (Chapin Social Insight Test) mediates the adaptive value of androgyny, allowing effective deployment of expanded sex-role potential across situations. It was found that androgynous males demonstrated the highest social cognition among the 4 sex types. In Study 3 androgynous males were the least well-defended and androgynous females the most highly defended relative to the other sex types. This is proposed as 1 basis for enhanced competence of androgynous females and the unexceptional competence of their male counterparts despite social cognition differences. (55 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Masculinity, femininity, and androgyny viewed and assessed as distinct concepts.

Evaluated (a) the equivalence of the scales of the short Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) and the Extended Personal Attributes Questionnaire (EPAQ), (b) the construct validity of the short BSRI and EPAQ as measures of well-being, (c) the validity of the concept of androgyny as an intrinsically interactive (rather than simply additive) concept, and (d) the utility and meaning of 2 special EPAQ measures—unmitigated agency and unmitigated communion. 172 college students participated. The short BSRI and EPAQ were empirically interchangeable when placed in a multitrait–multimethod matrix and 2 extrinsic convergent validation rectangles. A hierarchical multiple-regression analysis with interaction terms obtained with the Differential Personality Questionnaire provided only partial support for masculinity and femininity as measures of psychological well-being and no support for the significance of androgyny treated as an interaction of masculinity and femininity. Unmitigated agency and communion did not show the expected negative correlations with the mutual mitigation (interaction) of masculinity and femininity. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Compensatory masculine responding as a function of sex role.

Investigated the compensatory masculinity hypothesis, i.e., that males respond to sex-role threat by exaggerating their masculinity and engaging in greater amounts of antisocial behavior. A total of 72 sex-typed and androgynous (Bem Sex Role Inventory) college males were assigned to either a masculinity threat, masculinity validation, or control treatment group. Dependent measures included an affect rating scale, California Psychological Inventory Femininity scale, and the Behavior Questionnaire. As predicted, sex-typed males responded anxiously to sex-role threat and subsequently reported exaggerated levels of masculinity and antisocial behavior. Unexpectedly, androgynous males also reported anxiety, but they responded by lowering their level of masculine endorsement. Results support the notion of masculine compensation. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of superior female performance and sex-role orientation on gender conformity.

Assessed the effects of gender, sex-role orientation, and demonstrated female task superiority on influenceability in 54 mixed-gender dyads. The dependent variable was the number of items changed on a social judgment questionnaire subsequent to the influence attempt. The female superiority manipulation rather than gender- or sex-role orientation emerged as the strongest factor in determining influenceability. As predicted, the gender-relatedness of the measuring instrument also played an important role, with females conforming more on masculine items and males conforming more on feminine items. Results are interpreted as consistent with expectation states theory. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of sex role deviance in disturbed male adolescents on the perception of psychopathology.

Investigated the effect of sex-role deviance on the perception of psychopathology and correlated the size of this effect with measures of sex-role ideology and gender stereotyping. The study employed a person perception rating task in which Ss (99 school teachers; mean age 24.4) evaluated written case histories of sex-role deviant and sex-role congruent male adolescents with emotional and behavioral problems. Male adolescents were judged to be more disturbed if their hobbies, career aspirations, and interests were deviant for their sex than if they were sex-role congruent. The relationship between evaluative bias (i.e., the extent to which greater disturbance was perceived in sex-role deviant than congruent stimulus persons) and measures of gender stereotyping and sex-role ideology was also established. Gender stereotyping correlated significantly with bias, while sex-role ideology was not significantly correlated. Similar bias effects were found for male and female Ss. (French summary) (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The measurement of psychological androgyny: an extended replication

The Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI), the recently developed measure for psychological androgyny, was administered to 344 middle-Tennessee high school and university students. The BSRS's reliability coefficients and mean scores were very similar to those reported earlier for California junior college and university students, respectively. The present scoring patterns for the BSRI remained unchanged with the introduction of the four "familial context" variables of sex of Ss' siblings, sex of Ss' nearest-in-age sibling, parent whom the Ss considered emotionally warmest, and parent whom the Ss would most prefer to be like. Contrary to Bem's original findings, the present results with the BSRI suggested that Ss' responses to the measure may be affected by the social desirability phenomenon. Moreover, scores on the BSRI did not correlate consistently or highly with those presently obtained with a symbolic sex-role measure and a verbal sex-role scale. This lack of construct validity has been reported previously in at least two other studies. Though apparently reliable, the validity of the BSI remains problematic.     

Sex differences in the correlations among field dependence, spatial ability, sex role orientation, and performance on Piaget's water-level task.

In a study with 8th-grade boys and girls, significant sex differences were found on measures of spatial ability (Card Rotations Test), water-level performance, and sex-role orientation (Bem Sex Role Inventory), but not field dependence (Group Embedded Figures Test). For boys, correlations among field dependence, spatial ability, and water-level performance were significant, while for girls they were not. In contrast, sex role orientation was significantly related to field dependence and water-level performance for girls but not for boys. Results suggest a sex difference in the basis for mastering the water-level task. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The measurement of psychological androgyny.

Describes the development of a new sex-role inventory that treats masculinity and femininity as 2 independent dimensions, thereby making it possible to characterize a person as masculine, feminine, or "androgynous" as a function of the difference between his or her endorsement of masculine and feminine personality characteristics. Normative data, provided by 561 male and 356 female college and junior college students, are presented, as well as the results of various psychometric analyses. Findings indicate that: (a) The dimensions of masculinity and femininity are empirically and logically independent. (b) The concept of psychological androgyny is a reliable one. (c) Highly sex-typed scores do not reflect a general tendency to respond in a socially desirable direction, but rather a specific tendency to describe oneself in accordance with sex-typed standards of desirable behavior for men and women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex role identity, marital satisfaction, and response to behavioral marital therapy.

Explored the relationships among masculinity, femininity, marital satisfaction, and response to behavioral marital therapy (BMT) using 44 married nonclinic couples (mean ages of males and females 33.7 and 31 yrs, respectively), 54 maritally distressed clinic couples receiving BMT, and 18 maritally distressed clinic couples placed on a waiting list; the mean ages of males and females in both distressed clinic groups were 32.1 and 29.9 yrs, respectively. Ss completed the Marital Adjustment Scale and masculinity and femininity scales derived from the California Psychological Inventory. Results indicate that for each sex, both femininity and masculinity were significantly correlated with self-reported marital satisfaction; the magnitude of the correlations between femininity and marital satisfaction was higher than the correlations between masculinity and marital satisfaction. Among clinic couples, androgyny was the least frequent sex-role identity for either husbands or wives; conversely, among nonclinic couples, there were more androgynous husbands and wives than there was any other sex-role type. In the clinic group, both husbands and wives showed statistically significant but small increases in masculinity after receiving 10 wks of BMT. Masculinity and femininity level prior to treatment also significantly predicted response to BMT. The potential importance of both masculinity and femininity in successful marriages is highlighted, and treatment implications are discussed. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)