Towards sustainable production of protein-rich foods: appraisal of eight crops for Western Europe. PART II: Analysis of the technological aspects of the production chain

Increased production of plant protein is required to support the production of protein-rich foods which can replace meat in the human diet to reduce the strain that intensive animal husbandry poses on the environment. The suitability of lupin (Lupinus spp.), pea (Pisum sativum), quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), triticale (x Triticosecale), lucerne (Medicago sativa), grasses (Lolium and Festuca spp.), rapeseed/canola (Brassica napus) and potato (Solanum tuberosum) for protein production in Western Europe was studied on the basis of a chain-approach. The technological aspects, which are considered in this paper, are the processing methods, and the functional and nutritional properties of the derived protein products. The overall evaluation of the technological prospects of the eight crops as a protein source for Western Europe leads to the conclusion that this part of the production chain is not decisive for that choice. Pea and lupin have a slight advantage over the other crops, because their concentrates and isolates are already commercially available.     

Evaluation of pearl millet and field peas plus triticale silages for midlactation dairy cows.

A mixture of field peas and triticale was planted in spring, harvested as silage, and followed by a double crop of pearl millet, which also was harvested as silage. Eighteen Holstein cows were fed diets based on pea with triticale, pearl millet, or alfalfa plus corn silages. Dry matter digestibility of the pea with triticale diet was higher than for control (71.1 vs. 66.9%), but DM digestibility was not different between control and pearl millet diets. Milk production was not affected by diets containing pea with triticale or pearl millet compared with control diets (25.2, 23.2, and 24.5 kg/d). Cows fed pea with triticale produced milk with a higher concentration of fat (4.59 vs. 3.35%) and more FCM (27.3 vs. 22.1 kg/d) than those fed the control diet. However, cows fed the control diet gained more BW than those receiving pea with triticale or pearl millet diets. Partitioning of energy between body stores and milk production was different between cows fed pea with triticale and control diets; however, total energy use was not different (32.4 vs. 30.5 Mcal of NE(L)/d). Differences in energy partitioning may have been caused partly by differences in ruminal fermentation of the respective diets.     

Horizontal, Technical Cooperation in Research on Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoaWilld.)

Quinoa possesses remarkable characteristics in terms of its productive potential and eco-geographical adaptation (0 to 4000 msnm; 200 to 1000 mm of rainfall; -1 to 35°C, and short to (neutral) photoperiod). The market potential is large, and quinoa is already known in the United States, Canada, Europe, and Asia, as a basic source of protein of high biological value. FAO has suggested the crop be included as a source for food security in the next century (FAO, [1998]) Bolivia and Peru are the major producers of quinoa, with 70000 ha under cultivation.     

The Worldwide Potential for Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoaWilld.)

Quinoa is a highly nutritious food product, being cultivated for several thousands years in South America, with an outstanding protein quality and a high content of a range of vitamins and minerals. Other positive aspects of quinoa are the saponins found in the seed hull and the lack of gluten. Quinoa is one of the main food crops in the Andean mountains, but during recent times there has been increased interest for the product in the United States, Europe, and Asia. Quinoa has been selected by FAO as one of the crops destined to offer food security in the next century.

The genetic variability of quinoa is huge, with cultivars of quinoa being adapted to growth from sea level to 4000 meters above sea level (masl), from 40°S to 2°N latitude, and from cold, highland climate to subtropical conditions. This makes it possible to select, adapt, and breed cultivars for a wide range of environmental conditions. A major constraint for growth in northern parts of Europe, Canada, and in high altitude regions is the short growth season, because quinoa requires a maximal developmental time of 150 days in order to secure seed harvest. Hence, early maturity is one of the most important characteristics if quinoa is grown under these conditions. In southern Europe, the United States in certain parts of Africa and Asia there is good potential for increased production of quinoa.

Quinoa has a significant, worldwide potential as a new cultivated crop species and as an imported commodity from South America. The main uses of quinoa are for cooking, baking, etc.; various products for people allergic to gluten; animal feed, green fodder, and pellets; modified food products such as breakfast cereals, pasta, and cookies; industrial use of starch, protein, and saponin; and as a game-cover crop. In developing countries of Africa and Asia, quinoa may be a crop able to provide highly nutritious food under dry conditions.     

The Worldwide Potential for Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoaWilld.)

Quinoa is a highly nutritious food product, being cultivated for several thousands years in South America, with an outstanding protein quality and a high content of a range of vitamins and minerals. Other positive aspects of quinoa are the saponins found in the seed hull and the lack of gluten. Quinoa is one of the main food crops in the Andean mountains, but during recent times there has been increased interest for the product in the United States, Europe, and Asia. Quinoa has been selected by FAO as one of the crops destined to offer food security in the next century.

The genetic variability of quinoa is huge, with cultivars of quinoa being adapted to growth from sea level to 4000 meters above sea level (masl), from 40°S to 2°N latitude, and from cold, highland climate to subtropical conditions. This makes it possible to select, adapt, and breed cultivars for a wide range of environmental conditions. A major constraint for growth in northern parts of Europe, Canada, and in high altitude regions is the short growth season, because quinoa requires a maximal developmental time of 150 days in order to secure seed harvest. Hence, early maturity is one of the most important characteristics if quinoa is grown under these conditions. In southern Europe, the United States in certain parts of Africa and Asia there is good potential for increased production of quinoa.

Quinoa has a significant, worldwide potential as a new cultivated crop species and as an imported commodity from South America. The main uses of quinoa are for cooking, baking, etc.; various products for people allergic to gluten; animal feed, green fodder, and pellets; modified food products such as breakfast cereals, pasta, and cookies; industrial use of starch, protein, and saponin; and as a game-cover crop. In developing countries of Africa and Asia, quinoa may be a crop able to provide highly nutritious food under dry conditions.     

Nutritional composition and in vitro digestibility of grass and legume winter (cover) crops

In dairy farming systems, growing winter crops for forage is frequently limited to annual grasses grown in monoculture. The objectives of this study were to determine how cropping grasses alone or in mixtures with legumes affects the yield, nutritional composition, and in vitro digestibility of fresh and ensiled winter crops and the yield, nutritional composition, and in vitro digestibility of the subsequent summer crops. Experimental plots were planted with 15 different winter crops at 3 locations in Virginia. At each site, 4 plots of each treatment were planted in a randomized complete block design. The 15 treatments included 5 winter annual grasses [barley (BA), ryegrass (RG), rye (RY), triticale (TR), and wheat (WT)] in monoculture [i.e., no legumes (NO)] or with 1 of 2 winter annual legumes [crimson clover (CC) and hairy vetch (HV)]. After harvesting the winter crops, corn and forage sorghum were planted within the same plots perpendicular to the winter crop plantings. The nutritional composition and the in vitro digestibility of winter and summer crops were determined for fresh and ensiled samples. Growing grasses in mixtures with CC increased forage dry matter (DM) yield (2.84 Mg/ha), but the yield of mixtures with HV (2.47 Mg/ha) was similar to that of grasses grown in monoculture (2.40 Mg/ha). Growing grasses in mixtures with legumes increased the crude protein concentration of the fresh forage from 13.0% to 15.5% for CC and to 17.3% for HV. For neutral detergent fiber (NDF) concentrations, the interaction between grasses and legumes was significant for both fresh and ensiled forages. Growing BA, RY, and TR in mixtures with legumes decreased NDF concentrations, whereas growing RG and WT with legumes did not affect the NDF concentrations of either the fresh or the ensiled forages. Growing grasses in mixtures with legumes decreased the concentration of sugars of fresh forages relative to grasses grown in monoculture. Primarily, this decrease can be attributed to low concentrations of sugars of mixtures with HV (10.5%). Growing grasses in mixtures with legumes reduced the fiber digestibility of both winter crops (75.7% to 72.8% NDF). Growing grasses in mixtures with legumes did not affect estimated DM yield, nutritional composition, or digestibility of the succeeding summer crops. In conclusion, growing grasses in mixtures with legumes as winter forage crops can increase forage estimated DM yields and its nutritional quality in dairy farming sytems.     

Exergy-based efficiency and renewability assessment of biofuel production

This study presents an efficiency and renewability analysis of the production of three biofuels: rapeseed methyl ester (RME), soybean methyl ester (SME) and corn-based ethanol (EtOH). The overall production chains have been taken into account: not only the agricultural crop production and the industrial conversion into biofuel, but also production of the supply of agricultural resources (pesticides, fertilizers, fuel, seeding material) and industrial resources (energy and chemicals) to transform the crops into biofuel. Simultaneously, byproducts of the agricultural and industrial processes have been taken into account when resources have to be allocated to the biofuels. The technical analysis via the second law of thermodynamics revealed that corn-based EtOH results in the highest production rate with an exergetic fuel content of 68.8 GJ ha(-1) yr(-1), whereas the RME and SME results were limited to 47.5 and 16.4 GJ ha(-1) yr(-1). The allocated nonrenewable resource input to deliver these biofuels is significant: 16.5, 15.4, and 5.6 MJ ha(-1) yr(-1). This means that these biofuels, generally considered as renewable resources, embed a nonrenewable fraction of one-quarter for EtOH and even one-third for RME and SME. This type of analysis provides scientifically sound quantitative information that is necessarywith respect to the sustainability analysis of so-called renewable energy.     

Current Production and Potential of Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoaWilld.) in Peru

A traditional crop of the Andes, quinoa (Chenopodium quinoaWilld.), has generated increased interest among farmers, agroindustries, and national and international research institutions in Peru, due to its nutritive value and ability to adapt to a wide range of agroecological conditions. Quinoa is produced mainly by small-scale farmers, who use traditional production, processing, storage, and distribution systems. These systems generate relatively low yields, varying across different locations and years. Peru's National Institute of Agricultural Research (INIA) oversees all quinoa research, technology transfer, and seed production through its national program for Andean crops. The goals of INIA are to increase production and productivity, while maintaining environmental safety and increasing food security. Demand for quinoa has during recent years increased considerably, both nationally and internationally.     

Current Use of Quinoa in Chile

Quinoa, a relatively unknown crop in Chilean agriculture, is cultivated in the Andean area in the north of the country, and in coastal unirrigated lands of the southern central area. However, from pre-Columbian times (750 bc), the diverse indigenous ethnic groups that inhabited Chile used quinoa as part of their diet. Today, the area with the largest quinoa cultivation (176 ha) is found in the highlands of Iquique in the I Region. Recently, interest in cultivating quinoa for its food value and as a cash crop has increased, and considerable research is underway. A review of national databases for the last 10 years generated 52 studies of quinoa, half of which were investigations related to food uses. At present, investigations on quinoa are carried out at the universities of Chile—Santiago, Concepción, and Arturo Prat—Iquique, with studies on stress physiology, ecotype selection, selection for saponin content, saponin use, fertilization, and irrigation. In the Temuco area (IX Region), the Semillas Campex-Baer company has been working for more than 10 years with an ecotype known as Baer II, with potential for yields of 6500 kg/ha, and in commercial fields, of 3000 kg/ha. In Iquique, ecotypes from the highlands have been selected to be grown at 1000 masl, with experimental yields of up to 9000 kg/ha.     

A review of triticale uses and the effect of growth environment on grain quality

Triticale (× Triticosecale sp. Wittmack ex A. Camus 1927) is an anthropogenic cereal designed to incorporate the functionality and high yield of wheat (Triticum spp. Linnaeus 1753) and durability of rye (Secale cereale Linnaeus 1753). The potential of triticale has remained largely unrealised, and in the 135 years since A. Stephen Wilson first crossed wheat and rye, triticale has mostly been used as animal feed. Growing demand for food resources has led to an increased interest in triticale development. Efforts to breed cultivars appropriate for baking have met with difficulty, although relatively new approaches to triticale end-use propose greater applicability for human consumption. Further, environmental awareness has generated interest in the use of triticale within biofuel production. We review environmental and genetic effects on triticale yield with a view towards increased demand on a hardy and useful cereal crop. We find triticale could satisfy many of the hopes originally placed upon it, and may be useful in foodstuffs and fuel, but only when growth environment is carefully considered.     

Current Production and Potential of Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoaWilld.) in Peru

A traditional crop of the Andes, quinoa (Chenopodium quinoaWilld.), has generated increased interest among farmers, agroindustries, and national and international research institutions in Peru, due to its nutritive value and ability to adapt to a wide range of agroecological conditions. Quinoa is produced mainly by small-scale farmers, who use traditional production, processing, storage, and distribution systems. These systems generate relatively low yields, varying across different locations and years. Peru's National Institute of Agricultural Research (INIA) oversees all quinoa research, technology transfer, and seed production through its national program for Andean crops. The goals of INIA are to increase production and productivity, while maintaining environmental safety and increasing food security. Demand for quinoa has during recent years increased considerably, both nationally and internationally.     

Trypsin inhibitors in leaf protein concentrate

A study has been made of the tryptic inhibitory activity of leaf protein concentrate (LPC) prepared from several crops. The highest level of inhibition was found in LPC extracted from lucerne (50%), compared with that from fescue, Italian ryegrass and quinoa, which contained about 20% tryptic inhibitory activity. No inhibitory activity was found in kale LPC when measured under the defined conditions. Aqueous extraction of LPC decreased inhibitory activity, but solvents (propan-2-ol and acetone) were ineffective. The inhibitory activity in lucerne LPC was reduced by autoclaving, but the inhibitors in fescue, Italian ryegrass and quinoa were heat stable. Phenolic compounds were implicated in the inhibitory activity of fescue and Italian ryegrass LPC. Kinetic studies of the inhibitory activity of standard LPC samples prepared from Italian ryegrass, fescue and quinoa indicated that, in each instance, there was mixed inhibition.     

黄豌豆营养成分和功能研究进展

黄豌豆属一年生豆荚类作物,在我国的种植较为广泛。黄豌豆含有60%～65%的碳水化合物,23%～25%的蛋白质,少量的脂肪以及丰富的矿物质和维生素。黄豌豆蛋白含有丰富的必需氨基酸,例如赖氨酸含量为7.2%,而蚕豆和羽扁豆分别为5.9%和4.7%,可作为必需氨基酸的良好来源。黄豌豆蛋白可以降低肥胖、动脉粥样硬化以及恶性肿瘤之类的发病率,其生物活性肽具有抗幽门螺杆菌和抗氧化作用等。黄豌豆淀粉可以预防结肠癌,降低血糖以及胆固醇含量。黄豌豆具有很好的应用前景及推广价值,本文综述了黄豌豆的营养成分和生物学功能,为黄豌豆在各种食品中的应用及其制品的开发与研究提供了参考。     

植物蛋白肉的原料开发、加工工艺与质构营养特性研究进展

随着人们对健康饮食和环境保护意识的增强,植物肉产品在国内外得到迅速发展。本研究旨在探究豌豆组织蛋白与谷朊粉之比、红薯淀粉、菜籽油、红曲红添加量对植物肉感官评分、质构特性咀嚼性的影响。在单因素实验基础上,采用Box-Behnken响应面试验、质构分析对植物肉配方进行优化,并对最优配方进行理化指标测定和体外消化试验。结果表明,豌豆组织蛋白与谷朊粉之比为7:3（g/g）、红薯淀粉添加量6%、菜籽油添加量10%、红曲红添加量0.03%时最佳,此时得到感官综合评分为88.31分,质构分析咀嚼性为3.131;最优配方得到的植物肉蛋白质含量为15.70%、脂肪含量为2.33%、水分含量为57.79%;经质构分析,植物肉与猪肉里脊、牛肉、鸡肉除弹性外,硬度、粘结性、咀嚼性存在显著性差异（P<0.05）;体外消化分析结果显示,植物肉的蛋白质体外消化率为80.83%,牛肉蛋白质消化率为87.50%,两者差异性较小,说明植物肉具有较好的消化能力。以豌豆组织蛋白为原料的植物肉为进一步深入开发应用及其他相关产业提供了参考资料。

     

Entwicklungstendenzen in der Stärke- und Zuckerindustrie in Abhängigkeit vom Rohstoff. Teil 4. Kartoffel

Development Trends in Starch and Sugar Industries Depending on the Source Material. Part 4. Potato. In Western Europe (52°N. Latitude) the potential starch yield is estimated to be about 17 t ha⁻¹. For potato crops that can grow until October the average starch yield is estimated to be about 8 t ha⁻¹. The big gap between these two yields must be explained mainly by insufficient water supply to the potato crop. Also a more optimal quantity of foliage and possibly an improved type of haulm may help to bridge the gap. It is assumed that the starch yield will increase annually by about 100 kg ha⁻¹. The yield of coagulable protein is approximately 500 kg ha⁻¹. About the same quantity of N-compounds is processed with the cellwall material for fodder. It is shown that selection on starch yield is in general also a selection on protein yield. The energy output/input ratio for the production of 1 ha potatoes for the starch industry is about 2.5. It is likely that this ratio will increase.     

Diseases of Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa)

Downy mildew caused by Peronospora farinosais the most damaging disease of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa), an ancient Andean grain crop. The disease has been reported from all areas of quinoa cultivation. In the Andean highlands, it is considered endemic. Despite the disease's wide dissemination and significant effect on quinoa crop production, little is known about its epidemiology, host specialization, population structure, and host plant resistance. There is a similar knowledge gap regarding other quinoa diseases, such as Rhizoctoniadamping off, Fusariumwilt, leaf spot (Ascochyta hyalospora), seed rot and damping off (Sclerotium rolfsii, Pythium zingiberum), and brown stalk rot (Phoma exiguavar. foveata). These diseases are less widespread than downy mildew but are still considered potential production constraints, particularly when the crop is introduced in areas outside its traditional growing regions. This article provides an overview of current knowledge on downy mildew and other diseases affecting quinoa production.     

Semolina supplementation with processed lupin and pigeon pea flours improve protein quality of pasta

The objective of this work was to study the effect of processing (alcoholic extraction, fermentation and germination) on protein quality of lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L. var. Troll and Emir) and pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L. var. Aroito) flours. Second, the effect of semolina supplementation with the processed legume flours on protein quality of pasta was also evaluated. For protein quality evaluation amino acid composition and chemical score (CS) were determined in raw and processed legume flours as well as cooked semolina pasta supplemented and non-supplemented with processed legumes. Alcoholic extraction did not cause important changes in the amino acid profile of lupin seeds. Certainly, sulphur amino acid content of ethanol extracted lupin flours was reduced but levels remained similar to those usually found in other legumes. However, fermentation and germination of pigeon pea seeds improved some essential amino acids and slight changes in CS indexes were observed. Moreover, semolina supplementation with processed lupin and pigeon pea flours improved protein quality of pasta as a result of higher CS and EAA levels compared to the control cooked semolina pasta. Therefore, ethanol extracted lupin, as well as fermented and germinated pigeon pea seeds are suitable protein sources for formulating new pasta products.     

Effect of Pisum sativum fractions on the mortality and progeny production of nine stored-grain beetles

Yellow field pea (Pisum sativum L.) fractions that were mainly protein (50%), fibre (90%) or starch (85%) were obtained from a commercial pea mill and mixed with wheat kernels or wheat flour. Based on the mortality and the number of offspring produced, protein-rich pea flour was more toxic than fibre, which was more toxic than starch. For the protein-rich pea flour mixed with wheat kernels, the most sensitive insects were Sitophilus oryzae (L.), Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky and Sitophilus granarius (L.), followed by Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens) which was more sensitive than Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) and Rhyzopertha dominica (F.). For the protein-rich pea flour mixed with wheat flour, Cryptolestes pusillus (Schönherr) was most sensitive, followed by C. turcicus (Grouvelle) and T. confusum (Jacquelin du Val), with T. castaneum being the most resistant. Although protein-rich pea flour did not kill adults to a great extent when mixed with flour, it reduced offspring production significantly. Again C. pusillus was the most sensitive, followed by T. confusum, with T. castaneum offspring being the most resistant. The insecticidal activity of pea fractions decreased after treated wheat kernels were held at 30 °C, 70% r.h. for 8 months. The potential of using pea fractions to control stored-product insects is discussed.     

A nutritional, chemical and sensory evaluation of lupin (L. angustifolius) tempe

Tempe, a traditional Indonesian food, is usually made by the fermentation of soybeans. the substitution of soybeans with lupin seed kernels at levels of 50, 75 and 100% was investigated. Organoleptic evaluation using Australian (n = 17–22) and Indonesian panellists (n = 5–8) showed no significant difference ( P > 0.05) for taste, texture and overall acceptability between the samples. the process of soaking, boiling and fermenting the soybeans reduced the content of phytate (17%), protease inhibitors (98%) and oligosaccharides (77%). For lupin seed kernels the reductions were 60%, negligible and 86%, respectively, and for alkaloids 71%. the protease inhibitor content of lupin tempe was only one-fifth that of soy tempe.
Negligible changes in the protein quality of soybeans and lupins were observed. the Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER) was 2.30 for the boiled soybeans and 2.19 for soybean tempe. Cooked (boiled) lupins had a lower protein quality (PER = 0.84) which was not significantly altered by processing into tempe (PER = 0.91). the apparent digestibility of the cooked lupin (88.1%) and lupin tempe (88.4%) were similar to that of cooked soy (87.3%) and soy tempe (88.5%).
These results suggest good prospects for substituting lupin seed for soybeans in tempe production in cases where protein is not limiting and where the lower levels of antinutrients would be of nutritional benefit.     

马铃薯淀粉对豌豆蛋白3D打印材料结构及特性的影响

为开发以豌豆蛋白为基料的3D食品打印材料,探讨马铃薯淀粉对豌豆蛋白在3D打印可行性方面的作用规律及机理,通过SEM、XRD、FT-IR、DSC等方法,对豌豆蛋白3D打印材料的结构和性能进行分析。结果表明,马铃薯淀粉的添加对豌豆蛋白3D打印材料颗粒的结构、性质和3D打印可行性都有显著影响,改变了3D打印物的表面光滑度。可打印的3D打印材料配方豌豆蛋白含量范围为50%~75%。其中最佳的3D打印材料配方豌豆蛋白含量为50%,3D打印物成型效果好,造型逼真,表面光滑度高。此研究为3D食品打印材料的发展提供了参考,为实际生产豌豆蛋白3D打印材料提供了理论指导、工艺参考和技术支持,具有重大理论研究价值和实际应用意义。