A finite element analysis of stable crack growth in an aluminium alloy

Extensive stable cracking has been observed in large test pieces of 25 mm thick weldable AlMgZn alloy which is used in the construction of a portable bridge. Standard fracture specimens produced valid K_IC values, with short cracks exhibiting unstable fracture. Finite element analysis of the large specimens determined a valid J_R-curve that can increase the effective K_C by several times the K_IC value. The R-curve has an unusual ‘concave’ shape that is associated with the change from initially flat fracture to fully slant fracture. The early stages of the R-curve are affected by in-plane constraint that can be indexed by the T-stress. The R-curve can be used to explain the stability of long cracks in full-scale tests on a bridge prototype, compared with the instability of short cracks in small, standard test pieces.     

Estimate of remaining life of blades in aircraft gas turbines from accumulated creep strain

The structure of a multicomponent solution to the problem of calculating the remaining life of blades on the basis of accumulated creep strain with allowance for the effect of vibration loads is proposed. The accumulated elongation of a blade is determined by integrating the creep strains overs its volume. An expression for the remaining gamma-percent life of blades is obtained on the basis of the central limiting theorem. A correction for computed estimates is specified on the basis of in-service measurements of blade elongations.Translated from Problemy Prochnosti, No. 1, pp. 50–56, January, 1993.     

Suppression of fatigue crack growth in aluminium alloy sheets

The effect of crack bridging reinforcing members on the growth of a transverse fatigue crack in an aluminium alloy sheet has been examined. The specimens have been subjected to zero tension cyclic loading applied in the reinforcement direction. In the case of some specimens initial tensile stresses were developed in the substrate aluminium sheet by the reinforcing members. In other cases initial compressive stresses were developed. Fatigue crack growth rates in the unreinforced aluminium alloy sheet were also determined. In the case of both types of reinforced structures the reinforcing elements suppressed the growth of fatigue cracks compared with the unreinforced material. This effect was particularly marked in the case where the substrate aluminium sheet was prestressed in compression-the crack growth rates approaching zero as the peak applied tensile strain approached the value of the initial compressive pre strain.The mechanisms whereby fatigue crack growth in the substrate aluminium sheet is suppressed are discussed and their effectiveness related to the behaviour of the unreinforced material by comparing crack growth rates in terms of effective stresses intensity factors.The compressive stresses were developed in the substrate sheet using two part core/tube reinforcing members. The cores were held in residual tension with the rest of the structure in corresponding compression. The prestress condition appears to be achievable with negligible weight penalty in structures of appreciable size where the engineering requirement is to limit the deformation of a structure under load. Where increased elastic deflections and correspondingly higher stresses are acceptable, reductions in structure weight together with an improved resistance to fatigue crack growth compared with the unreinforced material appear possible.The cores are designed not to be fracturable as a consequence of tensile deformations of any magnitude applied to the composite structure. Hence, they provide a residual load bearing capability and also inhibit crack extension in the fracturable part of the structure under all conditions of tensile loading.

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Résumé On a examiné l'effet de pontage d'une fissure occasionné par des éléments de renforcement, dans le cas de la croissance de fissure de fatigue transversale dans une tôle d'alliage d'aluminium. Les éprouvettes étaient soumises à une sollicitation de traction cyclique pulsée appliquée dans la direction du renforcement. Dans le cas de certaines éprouvettes, des contraintes initiales de traction étaient développées dans la tôle d'aluminium servant de substrat directement par l'élément de renforcement. Dans d'autres cas des contraintes initiales de compression étaient développées. La vitesse de croissance de la fissure de fatigue de la tôle d'alliage d'aluminium non renforcée a également été déterminée. Dans les deux types de structure renforcée qui ont été examinés les éléments de renforcement suppriment la croissance de fissure de fatigue, quand on se compare au matériau non renforcé. Cet effet a été particulièrement marqué dans le cas d'une tôle d'aluminium pré-comprimée: dans ce cas, les vitesses de croissance de fissuration approchaient de 0 lorsque la déformation appliquée en traction approchait la valeur de la pré-déformation de compression initiale.On discute les mécanismes par lesquels la croissance d'une fissure de fatigue dans un tôle d'aluminium peut être supprimée ainsi que l'efficacité de leur comportement dans le matériau non renforcé en comparant les vitesses de croissance de fissure en termes de facteur d'intensité de contrainte.Les contraintes de compression étaient introduites dans la tôle de base en utilisant des éléments de renforcement constitués d'un tube et d'un noyau. Le noyau était maintenu en tension résiduelle tandis que le reste de la structure était amené en compression. Les conditions de précontrainte apparaissent réalisables avec une faible pénalisation en poids dans des structures d'une dimension déjà appréciable lorsque les exigences de la conception limitent la déformation de la structure sous contrainte. Lorsqu'on admet des déflexions élastiques plus importantes et des contraintes correspondantes plus élevées, il apparait possible d'obtenir des réductions dans le poids de la structure ainsi qu'une résistance accrue à la croissance d'une fissure de fatigue, par rapport à une structure non renforcée.Les noyaux sont conçus de manière à résister aux déformations de traction appliquées à la structure composite. Dès lors, ils apportent un complément de résistance aux charges appliquées et empêchent l'extension d'une fissure dans la partie de la structure susceptible de se rompre, sous toutes les conditions de mise en charge.

     

Analysis of crack in aluminium alloy AA2219 weldment

Aluminium alloy AA2219 is used for fabrication of propellant tanks of launch vehicles. After welding of one of the heat treated plate (T87 temper condition) with a rolled ring (T851 temper condition), crack has been noticed near the weldment. A thorough metallographic analysis was carried out to investigate the cause for development of crack, using optical and scanning electron microscope. Morphology of cracks alongwith the attributable factors are discussed and the remedial measures are suggested.     

Threshold creep behaviour of discontinuous aluminium and aluminium alloy matrix composites: An overview

Several sets of creep data for aluminium and aluminium alloy matrix composites reinforced by silicon carbide particulates, silicon carbide whiskers or alumina short fibres are analysed. It is shown that for this class of discontinuous composites the threshold creep behaviour is inherent. Applying the concept of threshold stress, the true stress exponent of minimum creep strain rate of approximately 5 follows from the analysis even when the matrix solid solution alloy exhibits Alloy Class creep behaviour, for which the value of 3 for the true stress exponent is typical. The creep strain rate in the discontinuous aluminium and aluminium alloy matrix composites is shown to be matrix lattice diffusion controlled. The usually observed high values of the apparent stress exponent of creep strain rate and the high values of the apparent activation energy of creep are then rationalized in terms of the threshold creep behaviour. However, the origin of the threshold stress decreasing with increasing temperature but not proportional to the shear modulus in creep of discontinuous aluminium and aluminium alloy matrix composites is still awaiting identification. The creep-strengthening effect of silicon carbide particulates, silicon carbide whiskers and alumina short fibres is shown to be significant, although the particulates, whiskers and short fibres do not represent effective obstacles to dislocation motion.     

Evaluation of initiation condition of creep crack growth by the crack energy density

By using the crack energy density ε as a creep crack parameter, the initiation condition of creep crack growth was evaluated. The creep tests by the CT specimens of Al alloy were carried out varying the load level, and the corresponding values of crack energy densities were calculated by the finite element analyses based on the ε_J-integral, which is path independent without any restriction on the constitutive equation. The characteristics of crack energy densities at the initiation times of creep crack growth were discussed and the initiation condition, in terms of crack energy density, was considered. Through the experiments and analyses, the outstanding results obtained are as follows: (1) The critical value expressed by total crack energy density ε (=, ε ₀ ⁺ + ε^(cr) ,ε ₀ ⁺ : elasto-plastic contribution at the time of load setting, ε^(cr): additional part caused by creep deformation) depends on the level of ε ₀ ⁺ . On the other hand, (2) the critical value expressed by ε^(cr) seems to be nearly independent of the level of ε ₀ ⁺ . Therefore, (3) ε^(cr) may be used as a useful parameter for the evaluation of the initiation condition of creep crack growth.     

The effect of laser power density on the fatigue life of laser-shock-peened 7050 aluminium alloy

Laser shock peening (LSP) is an innovative surface treatment method that can result in significant improvement in the fatigue life of many metallic components. The process produces very little or no surface profile modification while producing a considerably deeper compressive residual stress layer than traditional shot peening operations. The work discussed here was designed to: (a) quantify the fatigue life improvement achieved by LSP in a typical high strength aircraft aluminium alloy and (b) identify any technological risks associated with its use. It is shown that when LSP conditions are optimal for the material and specimen configuration, a —three to four times increase in fatigue life over the as-machined specimens could be achieved for a representative fighter aircraft loading spectrum when applied at a representative load level. However, if the process parameters are not optimal for the material investigated here, fatigue lives of LSP treated specimens may be reduced instead of increased due to the occurrence of internal cracking. This paper details the effect of laser power density on fatigue life of 7050-T7451 aluminium alloy by experimental and numerical analysis.     

Failure analysis and creep remaining life of hydrogen reformer outlet pigtail tubes

A failure analysis and creep remaining life assessment on hydrogen reformer outlet pigtail tubes in a methanol plant was conducted. The tube material was manufactured to ASME SB-407 (UNS N08810) material specifications. The observed evolution and progression of grain boundary cavity nucleation, coalescence, microcrack formation and eventual cracks were indicative of long-term creep failure, which occurred before the design life of the tubes. The remaining life evaluation was performed based on metallurgical evaluation of the outer diameter (OD), middle of wall thickness, and inner diameter (ID) percentage creep cavities versus tube OD. Very high statistical correlation was achieved by fitting creep data points to the classic creep strain versus time curve by using third order polynomial equations. The onset of tertiary creep was found to occur at 9.3% increase in the strain of the tube OD. This work affirms that using percentage area of creep cavities and the correlation to increase in OD is a robust technique for the reliable and accurate determination of the creep remaining life of superalloy tubes.     

Fatigue crack growth simulation of aluminium alloy under spectrum loadings

Fatigue crack growth in structure components, which is subjected to variable amplitude loading, is a very complex subject. Studying of fatigue crack growth rate and fatigue life calculation under spectrum loading is vital in life prediction of engineering structures at higher reliability. The main aim of this paper is to address how to characterize the load sequence effects in fatigue crack propagation under variable amplitude loading. Thus, a fatigue life under various load spectra, which was predicted, based on the Austen, Forman and NASGRO models. The findings were then compared to the similar results using FASTRAN and AFGROW codes. These models are validated with the literature-based fatigue crack growth test data in 2024-T3 Aluminium alloys under various overload, underload, and spectrum loadings. With the consideration of the load cycle interactions, finally, the results show a good agreement in the behaviour with small differences in fatigue life compare to the test data.     

Short fatigue crack growth in aluminium alloy 6082-T6

Fatigue crack growth tests on 6082-T6 aluminium specimens have been carried out. The single edge notched tension specimens had a spark eroded 0.2 mm deep starter notch. In order to measure the crack growth, a special direct current potential drop method was used. The experiments were carried out at four different stress ratios. The crack growth data validate the long crack growth data given in Eurocode 9 [CEN. ENV 1999-2: Eurocode 9: Design of aluminium structures. Part 2: Structures susceptible to fatigue. European Committee for Standardisation, 1998.] and some indication of accelerated crack growth for short cracks was found. An effective stress intensity factor, which is a generalisation of an approach proposed by El Haddad et al. [El Haddad MH, Topper TH, Smith KN. Prediction of nonpropagating cracks. Eng Fract Mech 1979; 11:573–84], has been applied to correct for short crack growth behaviour. It has been shown that the potential drop technique can be successfully used to measure crack growth in aluminium specimens. The mean stress dependence was found to be less pronounced than for the 7075-T6 and 2024-T3 aluminium alloys.     

Static crack extension prediction in aluminium alloy at low temperature

The evaluation of the crack initiation and crack extension under different environmental conditions is very important for many engineering applications. Several crack extension criteria have been proposed in the last decades, but each criterion can be employed only for particular materials, loading configurations, environmental conditions. In the present paper, the R-criterion (minimum extension of the core plastic zone) is modified in order to take into account the temperature dependence. The modified criterion is herein employed to predict the crack path and the crack extension force for an edge-cracked finite plate under tension, by using a simplified procedure to determine the stress-intensity factor (SIF) for different initial crack configurations. Then, results concerning some experimental tests performed on edge-cracked aluminium alloy sheet specimens at different temperatures are reported. Finally, the theoretical results are compared (in terms of crack extension force and crack path) with the experimental data.     

Microstructural modelling of creep crack growth from a blunted crack

The effect of crack tip blunting on the initial stages of creep crack growth is investigated by means of a planar microstructural model in which grains are represented discretely. The actual linking-up process of discrete microcracks with the macroscopic crack is simulated, with full account of the underlying physical mechanisms such as the nucleation, growth and coalescence of grain boundary cavities accompanied by grain boundary sliding. Results are presented for -controlled mode I crack growth under small-scale damage conditions. Particular attention is focused on creep constrained vs. unconstrained growth. Also the effect of grain boundary shear stresses on linking-up is investigated through shear-modified nucleation and growth models. The computations show a general trend that while an initially sharp crack tends to propagate away from the original crack plane, crack tip blunting reduces the crack growth direction. Under unconstrained conditions this can be partly rationalized by the strain rate and facet stress distribution corresponding to steady-state creep. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Laser shock peening on fatigue crack growth behaviour of aluminium alloy

The effect of laser shock peening (LPS) in the fatigue crack growth behaviour of a 2024‐T3 aluminium alloy with various notch geometries was investigated. LPS was performed under a ‘confined ablation mode’ using an Nd: glass laser at a laser power density of 5 GW cm^?2. A black paint coating layer and water layer was used as a sacrificial and plasma confinement layer, respectively. The shock wave propagates into the material, causing the surface layer to deform plastically, and thereby, develop a residual compressive stress at the surface. The residual compressive stress as a function of depth was measured by X‐ray diffraction technique. The fatigue crack initiation life and fatigue crack growth rates of an Al alloy with different preexisting notch configurations were characterized and compared with those of the unpeened material. The results clearly show that LSP is an effective surface treatment technique for suppressing the fatigue crack growth of Al alloys with various preexisting notch configurations.     

Fatigue life estimation after crack repair in 6005 A-T6 aluminium alloy using the cold expansion hole technique

In this paper, the hole drilling (HD) and the cold expansion (CE) processes, which were used as a technique for crack repair, were investigated in order to estimate the beneficial effects on fatigue crack initiation (FCI). The FCI life is defined as the number of cycles to initiate a new crack of 0.2 mm on the surface of the specimen. Three hole radii and three degrees of cold expansion (DCE%) values were tested after a crack propagation period. Crack retardation after the CE process was observed. This phenomenon is due to two mechanisms: retardation owing to both geometric and mechanical effects, which is produced by the stress concentration at the drilled hole, and the large strain‐induced compressive residual stresses around the hole. In this report, the influence of the loading conditions was studied. For high values of the stress intensity factor range ΔK_ρ around the hole (based on the pseudo crack length a + ρ), the number of cycles corresponding to crack initiation N_i is low. At the edge of the hole, the maximum stress range can be approximated by the following formula: Δσ_max = 2ΔK_ρ /√πρ , where ρ is the hole radius and ΔK_ρ is the related stress intensity factor range.The FCI life extension, defined by the number of cycles corresponding to crack re‐initiation N_i , is related to the relative maximum stress range ratio R_σ = [(Δσ_max )/(Δσ_max )_th ] where (Δσ_max )_th is the value of the threshold maximum stress range obtained when N_i = 2 × 10⁶ cycles. The relationship between N_i and R_σ may be written as a power function.     

Cyclic and monotonic crack propagation in a high toughness aluminium alloy

An extension of the R-curve concept is used to derive expressions to account for stress ratio effects in fatigue crack propagation, and to predict unstable crack growth. These conditions are related to the ‘engineering stress intensity factor’, which is based on the remote load or stress, and the crack length measured prior to loading. Early results from a continuing test programme, using DTD.5120 (7010-T7651) alluminum alloy, are presented.     

Constitutive modelling and springback prediction for creep age forming of 2124 aluminium alloy

Abstract

In order to improve the mechanical properties and reduce fabrication cost of large sheet metal parts, creep age forming (CAF) technology was developed, which is a process combined creep forming and heat treatment together. Springback of the workpiece in CAF is directly related to process parameters, such as, aging time, experimental stress and temperature. The aim of this paper is to establish a set of creep constitutive model, which can accurately predict the springback of 2124 aluminium alloy in CAF. A series of creep tests were carried out under different stress levels as 200, 225 and 250 MPa, and different temperatures as 185, 190 and 195°C for the solid solution treated and quenched 2124 aluminium alloy. Based on creep test data, a set of classic creep constitutive equations were established. Some important conclusions were drawn: the fitting curves of the constitutive equations could describe the test data in a good way; the creep strain increases with the increasing aging time, temperature and experimental stress. Then the springback of 2124 aluminium alloy during CAF process were analyzed by the finite element software MSC.Marc. Comparisons between the experiment analyses and finite element models show good correlation, and approve the forecast capability of FEM simulation for springback after CAF. At the end, the influence of process parameters on springback is studied, which provides essential foundation for designer to evaluate scheme and to optimise tool system design.     

Creep of an electroslag refined aluminium alloy

The creep resistance ofelectroslag refined aluminium alloyRR 58 has been studied in the temperature range 450-485°C and compared with that ofpermanent-mould cast, unrefined alloy. The electroslag refined RR 58 had a greater creep resistance than the unrefined alloy; this improvement has been attributed to the reduction in hydrogen content, macroporosity and microporosity, the removal ofoxide inclusions and the fine an uniform dispersion ofsecond phase precipitates in refined alloy. From the estimated activation energy for high temperature creep deformation (155 ^kJ mol_-1), a self-diffusion mechanism has been identified as rate controlling for both refined and unrefinedRR 58. The rate equation ?= A¹[sinh (ασ)]_nexp(–Q/RT] has been found to be applicable for RR 58 deformed under creep conditions in the range oftemperatures and strain rates studied     

The stress–life fatigue behaviour of aluminium alloy foams

The tension–tension and compression–compression nominal stress versus fatigue life responses of Alulight closed cell aluminium alloy foams have been measured for the compositions Al–1Mg–0.6Si and Al–1Mg–10Si (wt %), and for relative densities in the range 0.1–0.4. The fatigue strength of each foam increases with the relative density and with the mean applied stress, and is greater for the transverse orientation than for the longitudinal orientation. Under both tension–tension and compression–compression loading the dominant cyclic deformation mode appears to be material ratchetting; consequently, the fatigue life is highly sensitive to the magnitude of the applied stress. A micromechanical model is given to predict the dependence of life upon stress level and relative density. Panels containing a central hole were found to be notch insensitive for both tension–tension and compression–compression fatigue loading: the net-section strength equals the unnotched strength.     

High temperature creep behaviour of an Ni-Cr-W-B alloy

The high-temperature creep behaviour of a solid-solution strengthened Ni-Cr-W-B alloy was studied, with emphasis on microstructural parameters. Creep strength was determined from tests conducted at 925°C/40 MPa. Various techniques of analytical electron microscopy were used to characterize the microstructure and microchemical composition. A number of microstructural parameters which promote creep strength, including (1) pinning of grain boundaries by tungsten-rich M₆C carbide, (2) relatively low stacking-fault energy, and (3) boron segregation to M₂₃C₆ carbide, were identified. However, their beneficial effects were suppressed by the initial presence of discontinuously precipitated M₂₃C₆ carbide at grain boundaries which accelerated intergranular cracking. Suppression of the discontinuous grainboundary reaction and a significant improvement in creep strength could be achieved by a proper heat treatment which appeared to induce a sufficiently high defect density promoting intragranular carbide precipitation. Competition between intergranular and intragranular precipitation was found to be influenced by an external stress. Strengthening by intragranular carbide precipitates appeared to occur by an attractive interaction with dislocations. Dislocations bowing out at subboundaries, cross-slip, motion of jogged screw dislocations and generation of dislocations at high-angle grain boundaries appeared to operate simultaneously as strain-producing mechanisms during steady-state creep.     

Influence of corrosion and creep on intergranular fatigue crack path in 2XXX aluminium alloys

In this paper, two examples of the influence of time-dependent processes on crack path in two 2XXX aluminium alloys are presented. The first example is concerned with corrosion-fatigue crack growth resistance of a 2024 T351 alloy cracked in the S-L direction in 3.5% NaCl solution at free corrosion potential. The second example deals with the elevated temperature crack growth resistance of a 2650 T6 alloy that might be used in future supersonic aircraft fuselage panels. The common idea is to correlate quantitative measurements of relevant fractographic features of crack path to the effects of time-dependent processes on crack growth rates.