The Greek computer attitudes scale: construction and assessment of psychometric properties

The purpose of this paper was to develop and test the psychometric properties of a computer attitudes scale for the Greek population. Through both adapting items from other scales and writing new items, this study developed a Greek Computer Attitudes Scale of 30 items, with three subscales: confidence, affection, and cognitive. This study also explored sex differences on the GCAS, and the relationship between age, computer experience, and confidence with computers and participants’ responses on the scale. Questionnaire data from four Greek samples, which included participants from the general population (185 and 354 individuals, respectively), 222 teachers and 99 undergraduate students, were analyzed. Results indicated that: (1) both the reliability (internal consistency and test–retest) and validity (concurrent) of the GCAS were adequate; (2) the relationship between age and GCAS was not significant, whereas sex did not have a significant effect on GCAS scores; and (3) perceived computer experience and confidence with computers were strongly related to favorable attitudes toward computers.     

The Computer Aversion, Attitudes, and Familiarity Index (CAAFI): A validity study

This study’s purpose was to provide additional psychometric data on the Computer Aversion, Attitudes, and Familiarity Index (CAAFI). The CAAFI is comprised of 40 items, yielding a total score and four factor scores with 10 items each (one familiarity, one attitudes, two aversion). The measure was administered to a sample of undergraduate psychology students (N = 293) along with the Computer Understanding and Experience Scale, the Computer Attitude Scale, and the Computer Aversion Scale. The factor structure of the CAAFI was supported via confirmatory factor analytic procedures and analysis of internal consistency reliability coefficients. In relation to the other measures of computer-related constructs, the strongest validity support was found for the CAAFI total score and Factors 1 (computer familiarity) and 3 (computer aversion-discomfort), followed by Factor 2 (computer attitudes). With regard to Factor 4 (computer aversion-fear), given the results of the analyses the decision was made to remove these items from the CAAFI in order to enhance the measure’s psychometric properties and practical utility.     

Development and validation of a computer attitude measure for young students (CAMYS)

An important aspect in successfully implementing instructional technology in educational settings is user acceptance, which is greatly influenced by users’ attitudes towards computers. Today, computers have become an integral part of instruction at all levels of education and it is important for educators and policy makers to understand how various factors interact with the user’s characteristics to influence the teaching and learning process involving the use of computers. Over the years, many scales have been developed to measure computer attitudes of secondary students and adults. Few have been develop to be used for students in the primary schools. The aim of this study is to develop and validate a computer attitude measure for young students (CAMYS). The revised 12-item CAMYS was piloted with 256 students aged 10–12 with a mean of 11.9 years (SD = 0.31). Several statistical analyses were performed to assess the reliability and validity of the measure. The measure, together with suggestions for administration and scoring are included.     

Assessing emotions related to learning new software: The computer emotion scale

To date, little research has been done on the role of emotions with respect to computer related behaviours. The purpose of this study was to develop a reliable, valid scale to assess emotions while learning with computers. Four emotions (anger, anxiety, happiness, and sadness), selected after a detailed review of the research, were evaluated. Internally reliability estimates were acceptable. Construct validity was confirmed by an exploratory factor analysis. Convergent validity was supported by strong correlations among emotions and affective attitude, but not cognitive and behavioural attitudes. Finally, predictive validity was corroborated by consistent and significant correlations among emotion, computer knowledge, and use.     

Computer anxiety in individuals with serious mental illness

This study was designed to compare computer anxiety in individuals with severe mental illness to a normative college sample and to examine whether computer training would be effective in reducing computer anxiety in individuals with severe mental illnesses. The Computer Anxiety Rating Scale (CARS) was used to assess the self-reported computer anxiety of 30 individuals with severe psychiatric disorders enrolled in computer training at a mental health facility's employment training center. The CARS was administered prior to training, after 1 month of training, and after 3 months. Anxiety levels before computer training began were compared to the computer anxiety levels of 35 community college students enrolled in a course providing similar computer training. The individuals with severe mental illness were found to have significantly higher initial computer anxiety scores than the comparison group. Computer anxiety was not significantly reduced by the computer training in either group.     

Computer attitude scales: How relevant today?

Since the increase in the use of computers as learning tools, there have been many scales developed that can measure various aspects of ‘computer attitude’. The aim of this study is to examine the relevance of a number of these scales and determine whether they are still appropriate for use today. Four computer attitude scales, which are used widely, are assessed. It was found that the scales are reliable. However, the degree of predictive validity for each scale varied and the various underlying constructs appear to reflect different aspects of attitude. In addition, these constructs had changed since the original creation of the scales. This suggests that the traditional style of computer attitude scale is no longer as relevant as when first developed, and judicious selection and care need to be exercised over their use and the interpretation of findings.     

An exploration of theoretical and practical foundations for assessing attitudes toward computers: The Computer Attitude Measure (CAM)

Over the past 10 years, researchers have assessed over 15 different constructs with respect to computer attitudes, making it difficult to interpret and compare studies using these attitude measures. An absence of theoretical justification for many constructs further complicates interpretation. In this study, four theoretically distinct constructs (cognitive, affective, behavioral, and perceived control), based on over 45 years of general attitude scale development, are examined in the form of the Computer Attitude Measure (CAM). This measure, consisting of 50 items, was administered to 647 preservice teachers to assess cognitive (student, personal, general), affective, behavioral (classroom and home), and perceived control components of computer attitudes. The internal reliability coefficient for the full measure was .95. The alpha coefficients for each attitude subscale ranged from .70 to .97. The principal components factor analysis supported the a priori assumption that the four attitude dimensions and their subscales were structurally independent. Significant positive correlations (p < .001) among all attitude subscales and computer awareness, software skill, and programming provided support for the construct validity of the CAM. Strong theoretical foundations coupled with the promising statistical results of this study suggest that the four-dimension model may be one way to reorganize and assess the multitude of constructs already identified by computer attitude researchers.     

Sheltered in cyberspace? Computer use among the unsheltered ‘street’ homeless

Although physical health, mental health, and substance use problems are disproportionately high among the homeless, those with greater access to their social support systems report better outcomes than others. Communication with loved ones can be challenging for this population because of lack of access to telephone landlines. Computer technology may be an alternative medium for this population to access their social support systems, which, in turn, could lead toward better health outcomes. This exploratory study examined the computer use of 100 unsheltered homeless men and women in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Participants were interviewed using the Homeless Supplement to the Diagnostic Interview Schedule, a technology use module created for this investigation, and the substance use and psychiatric sections of the Addiction Severity Index. Almost half (47%) of the sample reported computer use in the past 30 days (averaging 17.67 h and 30 days). Participants used computers to maintain their sense of social connectedness, for business purposes (job and housing searches), and for leisure. Computer technology could be used to disseminate information, prevent, screen, and treat many conditions, and collect data with this difficult-to-reach population. This technology has the potential to increase access to much needed services at a relatively low cost.     

Computer experience: a poor predictor of computer attitudes

Considerable research has focused on the relationship between computer experience and attitudes. This study aimed to identify those experience factors that are best able to predict computer attitudes. A questionnaire was designed to incorporate various measures of experience as defined by previous researchers. Reliability analyses were appropriate for both experience and attitude scales. Relationships between these constructs whilst significant (p<0.01) were at best moderate in magnitude, and experience factors were poor predictors of computer attitude scores. However, exploratory analyses showed that high levels of variance in the variable ‘computer confidence’ could be explained by quantifiable use data. It is concluded that current questionnaire scales inadequately reflect the many aspects of experience that contribute toward computer attitudes.     

Teachers' perceptions towards ICTs in teaching-learning process: Scale validity and reliability study

The purpose of this study was to develop a scale for measuring teachers' perceptions towards ICTs in teaching-learning process in the classroom. The sample of the study consisted of volunteering Turkish teachers (n = 200). This study developed a new scale for measuring teachers' perceptions towards ICTs in teaching-learning process. In order to test the validity of the scale, the exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were carried out in the research. A result of the EFA, the scale consisted of three factors: attitude, usage, and belief with 25 items. It was also seen that there were positive correlations amongst the three factors of the scale. Cronbach's Alpha reliability coefficient value was found as 0.92 and Spearman-Brown split-half correlation value was found as 0.85 in the study. It was seen that reliability coefficient values of the factors of in the scale ranged between 0.88 and 0.72 in the research. Lastly, as a result of the CFA, it was understood that the obtained values (Δχ² (n = 200)/df = 4.85/3; GFI = 0.96; AGFI = 0.94; RMSEA = 0.026; CFI = 0.97; TLI = 0.98) confirmed the three-factor structure of the scale.     

Women and computers. Effects of stereotype threat on attribution of failure

This study investigated whether stereotype threat can influence women’s attributions of failure in a computer task. Male and female college-age students (n = 86, 16–21 years old) from Germany were asked to work on a computer task and were hinted beforehand that in this task, either (a) men usually perform better than women do (negative threat condition), or (b) women usually perform better than men do (positive condition), or (c) they received no threat or gender-related information (control group). The final part of the task was prepared to provide an experience of failure: due to a faulty USB-memory stick, completion of the task was not possible. Results suggest a stereotype threat effect on women’s attribution of failure: in the negative threat condition, women attributed the failure more internally (to their own inability), and men more externally (to the faulty technical equipment). In the positive and control conditions, no significant gender differences in attribution emerged.     

Internal consistency,test–retest reliability and concurrent validity of a questionnaire on work-related exposure related to arm,shoulder and neck symptoms in computer workers

The aim of this study was to determine the internal consistency, test–retest reliability and concurrent validity of the RSI QuickScan, a newly developed questionnaire that aims to identify the presumed risk factors for neck, shoulder and arm symptoms in a population of computer workers. The internal consistency was calculated using item analysis. The test–retest reliability and concurrent validity were analysed by calculating the percentage of agreement, Cohen's Kappa and the Ppositive and Pnegative. The concurrent validity was also tested by comparing the results from the new questionnaire with those from the original questionnaires that the current questionnaire was based on, on-site expert observations and direct measurements. The results indicate that the RSI QuickScan is a measurement tool with acceptable internal consistency, reliability and concurrent validity. The questionnaire can be used as a means to rapidly collect data on a large population of office workers and at low cost.     

Gender differences in computer attitudes: Does the school matter?

In most western countries, the participation of females in ICT professional careers is not only low but is also still falling [Anderson, N., Lankhear, C., Timms, C., & Courtney, L. (in press). Because it’s boring, irrelevant and I don’t like computers’: Why high school girls avoid professionally-oriented ICT subjects. Computers & Education.]. Policy makers as well as researchers often assume that the interest of girls in computing and ICT-professions could be increased at school. For example, female teachers who are confident ICT-users, are expected to act as positive role models for girls. However, because most of the research on gender and computing has been focussing on the influence of none-school related factors, there is little empirical evidence that schools or teachers are able to influence girls’ attitude toward ICT. Using the data of a Dutch large-scale survey on ICT use in primary education (almost 4000 grade 5 students), this study explores the influence of both none-school related factors and school related factors on students’ computer attitude. Although the between-school variance of girls’ computer attitude is higher than that of boys’ computer attitude, multilevel analyses show that most of the variance in computer attitude is explained by none-school related student factors. Two school related factors turned out to have a small positive effect on the computer attitude of girls: a teacher-centred pedagogical approach and the computer experience of female teachers.     

The use of virtual environments based on a modification of the computer game Quake III Arena in psychological experimenting

We investigated whether newly developed virtual 3D environments (VEs) based on a modification of the computer game Quake III Arena^® are suitable for psychological experimenting. Internal validity of data collected in VEs may be threatened due to a priori individual differences in general performance in VE navigation and in susceptibility to cybersickness. The main question was whether individual differences in performance can be diminished by means of training. Additionally, the susceptibility of different subsamples to cybersickness when moving within VEs was examined. 85 participants took part in an experiment where they had to fulfill simple tasks in three VEs. Navigation performance was measured as the time participants needed to make their way through the VEs. Differences in navigation performance between different levels of experience were diminished by training, indicating that internal validity can be obtained. A classification tree reveals that game-inexperienced female participants aged over 31 years have the highest risk of experiencing cybersickness. VEs based on modifications of computer games seem to be an extremely promising and inexpensive possibility for the administration of psychological experiments.     

Analysis of cognitive learning strategies and computer attitudes,according to college students’ gender and locus of control

This study explored variations in cognitive learning strategies and computer attitudes among college students, based on gender and locus of control. The study groups were comprised of 263 preservice teachers. The results demonstrated that the level of adherence to cognitive learning strategies on the part of female college students was significantly higher than those of male college students, especially in terms of memorization, analytical, and explanation. This study found that college students’ gender has an effect on cognitive learning strategies and computer attitudes. In terms of locus of control, college students’ cognitive learning strategies and computer attitudes were found statistically significant in the following levels: small in application, small in memorization, weaker in analytical, small in summarization, small in rehearsal, weaker in explanation, and small in computer attitude. Observance of cognitive learning strategies was found to be significantly higher for college students with internal locus of control than for those with external locus of control in terms of summarization and rehearsal.     

Influence of gender,program of study and PC experience on unethical computer using behaviors of Turkish undergraduate students

This study administered the unethical computer using behavior scale (UECUBS) developed by [Namlu, A.G., & Odabasi, F. (2007). Unethical computer using behavior scale: A study of reliability and validity on Turkish university students. Computers and Education, 48, 205–215.] to investigate whether gender, program of study and PC experience have an impact on ethical judgments of undergraduate students regarding information and communication technologies (ICTs). The sample consisted of 559 undergraduates from the Education Faculty of the most populated state university in Turkey. The results of 5 (program of study) × 2 (gender) × 2 (PC experience) between-groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated no significant differences among different programs of study and between high and low experienced PC users. The analysis showed significant differences between males and females. A significant interaction between the program of study and gender was found, which indicated that the difference between males and females did not follow a similar pattern across different programs of study. More specifically, females’ ethical judgments were consistent across different fields while males’ judgments varied according to the field of study.     

Measuring Information and Communication Technology Literacy using a performance assessment: Validation of the Student Tool for Technology Literacy (ST2L)

This paper reports the validation scores of the Student Tool for Technology Literacy (ST²L), a performance-based assessment based on the National Educational Technology Standards for Students (NETS*S) used to measure middle grade students Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Literacy. Middle grade students (N = 5884) from school districts across the state of Florida were recruited for this study. This paper first provides an overview of various methods to measure ICT literacy and related constructs, and provides documented evidence of score reliability and validity. Following sound procedures based on prior research, this paper provides validity and reliability evidence for the ST²L scores using both item response theory and testlet response theory. This paper examines both the internal and external validity of the instrument. The ST²L, with minimal revision, was found to be a sound measure of ICT literacy for low-stakes assessment purposes. A discussion of the results is provided with emphasis on the psychometric properties of the tool and some practical insights on with whom the tool should be used in future research and practice.     

Teachers’ attitude regarding the use of ICT. A factor reliability and validity study

Current research examines the need for design and validation of a unifactorial scale to measure attitudes of university teachers with regard to ICT. The main goal of this study is to achieve a simple scale, composed of a single factor contributing a clearly reliable measure with acceptable content and factorial validity. A case study is presented, which has been developed with the teaching staff of the University of Salamanca (Spain). In this case study, an expert content validation was done at a first stage. After that, an attitude scale regarding the usage of ICT in teaching was applied with a representative sample of teachers (N = 2329; n = 161). An individual analysis of the items was made with the obtained results and then a Cronbach’s alpha based reliability test was carried out to show the internal consistency of the survey. Finally, an exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis was applied to prove its structural soundness and unifactoriality. The main conclusion of this paper is to offer to the scientific community a tool with adequate psychometric properties that gives added pedagogical value to the introduction of ICT in higher education teaching.     

Updating the attitudes toward computer usage scale using American undergraduate students

The Attitudes Toward Computer Usage Scale (ATCUS) was first developed in 1986 by [Popovich, P. M., Hyde, K. R., Zakrajsek, T., & Blumer, C. (1987). The development of the attitudes toward computer usage scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 47, 261–269.] using American undergraduates and has since been with a variety of populations over the past 20 years. However, many changes in the technological landscape have occurred since its development, thus creating a need for an updated scale. During the course of a three-part study, the ATCUS v. 2.0 was developed with psychometric properties similar to that of the original ATCUS. The addition of more up-to-date items to serves to enhance the usefulness and practicality of this instrument. The ATCUS v. 2.0 was found to have both high internal consistency, alpha = .83 and test–retest reliability, r = .93.