Does the White Racial Identity Attitude Scale measure racial identity?

Competing interpretations of the structure of the White Racial Identity Attitude Scale (WRIAS; J. E. Helms & R. T. Carter, 1990) were assessed in 2 investigations. First, a meta-analysis of scale intercorrelations and internal reliability estimates indicated that, after correction for measurement error, intercorrelations between some scales were equal to unity, suggesting that the structure of the WRIAS is less complex than the theory of White racial identity it is assumed to measure. Second, confirmatory factor analysis of 2 data sets likewise revealed that scale structures found in the data are more parsimonious than those suggested by theory. Although it remains unclear which construct or constructs are actually measured by the instrument, interpretations of the WRIAS as composed of 5 meaningful dimensions are unsupported. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Implications of Behrens (1997) for the validity of the White Racial Identity Attitude Scale.

This article argues that the results that J. T. Behrens (see record 84-17563) interprets as reflecting the simplistic structure of the White Racial Identity Attitude Scale (WRIAS; J. E. Helms & R. T. Carter, 1990) also can be attributed to (a) a lack of fit between Helms' (1984) White racial identity development theory and the conceptual and measurement models on which Behrens's research is based, (b) possible failure to correct appropriately for artifacts in his data sets, and (c) unusual interpretations of basic principles of classical measurement theory. Tentative theory-relevant implications of Behrens's studies for the construct validity of the WRIAS are discussed, but their relevance for the convergent and discriminant validity of the WRIAS are disputed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measuring white racial identity: A reply to Helms (1997).

This article argues that J. T. Behrens' (see record 84-17563) initial analysis was appropriate and that the simple structure conclusion concerning the White Racial Identity Attitude Scale (WRIAS) holds. First, the "possible failures" of the analyses were explicitly addressed in Behrens's article and were not problematic. Second, the complex patterns expected from the WRIAS in light of the complex theory from which it was developed simply do not exist in the data. Furthermore, converging results from the use of classical measurement and latent trait analysis counter arguments concerning the weakness of the traditional approach. Third, the dismissal of the results as irrelevant to convergent and discriminant validity is rejected because the test consists of 5 scales whose interrelations are of primary interest. Implications for counseling research and practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development and validation of the Internalized Racial Oppression Scale for Black individuals.

This article describes the development and validation of the Internalized Racial Oppression Scale (IROS) for Black individuals in 2 studies using a total sample of 468 Black college students. The IROS is intended to measure the degree to which racial oppression is internalized and replicated by Black individuals in the United States. An exploratory factor analysis suggested a five-factor solution: Belief in the Biased Representation of History (BRH), Devaluation of the African Worldview and Motifs (DAW), Alteration of Physical Appearance (APA), Internalization of Negative Stereotypes (INS), and Hair Change (HC). Confirmatory factory analysis supported an adequate model fit of a four-factor model: BRH, APA, INS, and HC. All factors of the IROS were positively correlated with the Pre-Encounter subscale of the Racial Identity Attitude Scale (RIAS-B; J. E. Helms & T. A. Parham, 1996), and 4 of the factors were negatively correlated with the Immersion/Emersion subscale of the RIAS-B. Four factors of the IROS were negatively correlated with all subscales and total scores of the African Self-Consciousness Scale (J. A. Baldwin & Y. R. Bell, 1985). These results provide some support of the validity of the IROS. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

An examination of the structure of self-report psychopathy measures and their relations with general traits and externalizing behaviors.

Self-report assessment of psychopathy is plagued by inconsistencies among the relations of the various psychopathy factors. We examined the factor structure of 3 prominent self-report measures of psychopathy—the Self-Report Psychopathy Scale–III (SRP–III; Williams, Paulhus, & Hare, 2007), the Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (LSRP; Levenson, Kiehl, & Fitzpatrick, 1995), and the Psychopathic Personality Inventory–R (PPI–R; Lilienfeld & Widows, 2005). A coherent 4-factor structure resulted from conducting an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) of the psychopathy subscales along with the domains from the five-factor model. Two of these factors were consistent with traditional conceptualizations of a 2-factor structure of psychopathy (i.e., Factor 1, which loaded negatively with Agreeableness; Factor 2, which loaded negatively with Conscientiousness), while 2 additional factors emerged, 1 of which emphasized low Neuroticism and 1 of which emphasized traits related to novelty/reward-seeking and dominance-related personality traits (high Extraversion). We also investigated the relations of these factors with a variety of externalizing behaviors (EB). The psychopathy scales indicative of interpersonal antagonism (i.e., Factor 1) were most consistently and strongly related to EB. Our findings are discussed in terms of the importance of a trait-based perspective in the assessment of psychopathy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reexamining the relationships between racial identity, cultural mistrust, help-seeking attitudes, and preference for a Black counselor.

The purpose of the present study was to examine the extent to which Black racial identity attitudes, cultural mistrust, and help-seeking attitudes predicted preference for a Black counselor in a sample of 168 African American adults. Participants were recruited from college and community settings in an urban, southern location in the United States. Participants completed 4 self-report measures: the Cross Racial Identity Scale (B. J. Vandiver et al., 2000), the Cultural Mistrust Inventory (F. Terrell & S. Terrell, 1981), the Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help—Short Form (E. H. Fischer & A. Farina, 1995), and a modified version of the Counselor Preference Scale (T. A. Parham & J. E. Helms, 1981). Multiple regression analyses revealed that racial identity, cultural mistrust, and help-seeking attitudes significantly predicted preference for a Black counselor. Elevated cultural mistrust attitudes, low assimilation attitudes, and strong internalized Afrocentric attitudes significantly and uniquely predicted participants' preference for a Black counselor. The results are discussed with respect to individual differences within groups. Implications for counselors and counseling center directors regarding counselor–client race matching are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Construct validity study of the Racial Identity Attitude Scale.

In the present study, we examined the construct validity of the Racial Identity Attitude Scale (RIAS; Parham & Helms, 1981), an instrument designed to measure attitudes consistent with the four stages of Cross's (1971) Negro-to-Black conversion experience. Black students (N?=?186) from two geographically dispersed, predominantly white university campuses served as subjects. Using oblique factor analytic methods and examining alternative factor solutions, we found strong support for Cross's constructs known as the pre-encounter, immersion–emersion, and internalization stages. Little statistical support was found for the construct of encounter stage as represented in the RIAS items. The difficulty in discerning the encounter stage in terms of attitude items is noted, and suggestions for future research on the RIAS and on the Cross model are given. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Validity and construct contamination of the Racial Identity Attitude Scale—Long Form.

The Racial Identity Attitude Scale—Long Form (RIAS–L; J. E. Helms & T. A. Parham, 1996) is likely to be the instrument of choice in future research on African American racial identity development, but little is known about its psychometric properties. RIAS-L data from 275 African American community members and students were collected, and a series of analyses (i.e., correlations, multiple regressions, and confirmatory modeling) was conducted to explore convergent and discriminant validity. Overall, results were mixed, generally revealing limited support for the RIAS-L's convergent and discriminant validity and highlighting concerns regarding the Preencounter and Encounter subscales. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Examining racial identity statuses as predictors of psychological defenses in African American college students.

The authors examined the relationship between racial identity statuses and the use of psychological defenses in 80 African American college students who completed the Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale (J. E. Helms & T. A. Parham, 1996), Defense Mechanism Inventory (G. C. Gleser & D. Ihilevich, 1969), and the Defense Style Questionnaire—40 (G. Andrews, M. Singh, & M. Bond, 1993). The canonical analysis indicated that pre-encounter and encounter ego statuses were positively related to neurotic psychological defenses as well as defenses of principalization and reversal. The immersion ego status was positively related to immature psychological defenses as well as turning against object and projection. The emersion ego status was positively related to mature psychological defenses as well as turning against object and projection. The authors believe these results provide additional support for J. E. Helms's (1995) racial identity model, because racial identity ego statuses predicted how African Americans managed painful affect. The discussion also focuses on implications of these results for counseling and future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Lesbian and gay male group identity attitudes and self-esteem: Implications for counseling.

96 lesbians and gay men (aged 18–46 yrs) completed the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and a modified version of J. E. Helms and T. A. Parham's (1985) Racial Identity Attitude Scale (RIAS). Based on W. E. Cross's (1971, 1978) model of African-American identity development, the RIAS assesses 4 distinct psychological stages (preencounter, encounter, immersion-emersion, and internalization), which are thought to correspond to a parallel process in the development of gay male and lesbian group identity attitudes. Consistent with findings among other minority groups, the results indicated a moderate inverse relationship between preencounter attitudes and self-esteem and a positive relationship between internalization attitudes and self-esteem. Encounter and immersion-emersion attitudes were (nonsignificantly) negatively correlated with self-esteem. Implications for counseling gay men and lesbians are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The structure and temporal stability of the Child and Adolescent Perfectionism Scale.

In this study, the authors examined the factor structure and temporal stability of the Child and Adolescent Perfectionism Scale (CAPS; G. L. Flett, P. L. Hewitt, D. J. Boucher, L. A. Davidson, & Y. Munro, 1997) in 2 samples of adolescents (15–16 years old). In Sample 1 (n = 624), confirmatory factor analysis did not support a 2-factor structure (self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism). As in B. T. McCreary, T. E. Joiner, N. B. Schmidt, & N. S. Ialongo (2004), reanalysis suggested a 3-factor solution (i.e., socially prescribed perfectionism, self-oriented–Striving perfectionism, self-oriented–Critical perfectionism). The authors validated their 3-factor model in an independent replication sample (Sample 2; n = 514) and confirmed that the 3-factor structure was invariant across gender and time (test–retest over 6 months). Taking these analyses together, the authors concluded that their discriminant 3-factor structure is robust. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed. More research on the predictive validity of the CAPS is suggested. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Construction and validation of the Disability Rights Attitude Scale: Assessing attitudes toward the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA).

The authors constructed and validated an instrument that assesses attitudes toward the Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA), a law that protects the civil rights of individuals with disabilities. The Disability Rights Attitude Scale (DRAS) demonstrated acceptable reliability and validity with 2 samples of university students (N?=?421). Reliability analysis resulted in Cronbach's alphas of .91 (Sample 1) and .90 (Sample 2). Principal-components factor analysis indicated that the DRAS essentially consists of 1 factor that accounted for 27% (Sample 1) and 31% (Sample 2) of the total variance. Construct validity analysis resulted in predicted, significant positive correlations with other relevant measures. A stepwise multiple regression analysis revealed that sex, ethnicity, and prior contact with people with disabilities were significant predictors of attitudes toward the law. The DRAS provides a psychometrically sound means of assessing attitudes toward disability rights that may encourage or impede implementation of the ADA. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Racial(ized) Identity, Ethnic Identity, and Afrocentric Values: Conceptual and Methodological Challenges in Understanding African American Identity.

A survey of the literature reveals that there is conceptual confusion and inconsistent and sometimes inappropriate usage of the terms racial identity, ethnic identity, and Afrocentric values. This study explored the extent to which Black racial(ized) identity attitudes were related to ethnic identity and Afrocentric cultural values. Two hundred and one African American college students attending a predominantly White university or a historically Black university completed the Cross Racial Identity Scale (B. J. Vandiver et al., 2000), the Nadanolitization Scale (J. Taylor & C. Grundy, 1996), the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (J. S. Phinney, 1992), and the Africentrism Scale (C. Grills & D. Longshore, 1996). Results of a canonical correlation indicated 2 significant orthogonal roots that were labeled a nonracialized ethnic identity and a racialized ethnic identity. The results suggest important similarities and differences among the various identity constructs. Implications for racial and ethnic identity research and Afrocentric research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Impact of perfectionism and need for approval on the brief treatment of depression: The National Institute of Mental Health Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research Program revisited": Correction.

Reports an error in the original article by S. J. Blatt et al (Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1995[Feb], 63[1], 125–232. Corrections in Table 2, which presented correlations of 5 measures of therapeutic change at pretreatment with 4 outcome variables, resulted in reducing the size and significance of the correlations of pretreatment Social Adjustment Scale scores in predicting therapeutic change. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1995-25991-001). Patients in the National Institute of Mental Health Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research Program (TDCRP) were administered at intake with the Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DAS; A. N. Weissman & A. T. Beck 1978). Factor analyses of the DAS in the TDCRP data as well as in several independent samples reveal two primary factors: an interpersonal factor, Need for Approval, and a self-critical factor, Perfectionism. This study explored the hypotheses that these factors, assessed prior to treatment, would have differential interactions with the two forms of psychotherapy evaluated in the TDCRP as well as differential relationships to various outcome measures (depression, clinical functioning, and social adjustment). … (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attitudes toward professional counseling among Asian-American college students: Acculturation, conceptions of mental illness, and loss of face.

The present study attempted to examine the influence of culture-bound barriers such as acculturation status, loss of face, and conception of mental health on the attitudes of Asian American college students (n = 134) toward seeking professional psychological help. An adapted Acculturation Attitude Scale (AAS; U. Kim, 1988), Zane's (1991) Loss of Face Scale (LOFS), a 10-factor Conception of Mental Health Scale (CMHS; Nunnally, 1961), and a modified version of the Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help Scale (ATSPPHS) with four subscales (Fischer & Turner, 1970) were used in this study. Results support the hypothesis that acculturation and conceptions of mental health were significantly correlated with attitudes toward mental health services. Loss of face was also significantly correlated with attitudes of being open to professional counseling. Implications for mental health professionals working with Asian Americans are highlighted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Lesbian and gay male group identity attitudes and self-esteem: Implications for counseling": Erratum.

Reports errors in the original article by K. L. Walters and J. M. Simoni (Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1993[Jan], Vol 40(1), 94–99). Two errors were made in Table 3. First, the reported statistics were not identified. For all but columns C and D, the statistics are standardized beta weights from multiple regression analyses. The statistics in columns C and D are simple correlations. Second, in column D, the respective values for the preencounter and immersion-emersion stages should be –.41* (not –.35*) and –.15 (not –.40). (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1993-13378-001.) 96 lesbians and gay men (aged 18–46 yrs) completed the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and a modified version of J. E. Helms and T. A. Parham's (1985) Racial Identity Attitude Scale (RIAS). Based on W. E. Cross's (1971, 1978) model of African-American identity development, the RIAS assesses 4 distinct psychological stages (preencounter, encounter, immersion-emersion, and internalization), which are thought to correspond to a parallel process in the development of gay male and lesbian group identity attitudes.… (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Integrating stage and continuum models to explain processing of exercise messages and exercise initiation among sedentary college students.

Concepts from the transtheoretical model (J. O. Prochaska, C. C. DiClemente, & J. C. Norcross, 1992), theory of planned behavior (I. Ajzen, 1985), and the elaboration likelihood model (R. E. Petty & J. I Cacioppo, 1986b) were used to examine how exercise readiness impacted processing of exercise messages and exercise initiation. Sedentary college students (n?=?147) were assessed for exercise attitude, intent, behavior, and stage of change. Students also listed their thoughts after reading messages with either strong or weak arguments for exercise. Attitude predicted depth of message processing, but stage of change did not. Stage of change and intent at baseline predicted exercise adoption at 1- to 3-month follow-up (n?=?134), with baseline activity moderating the effect of intent. Tailoring messages to recipients' depth of processing and interactive effects of intent and behavior on exercise adoption should be considered in future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Research on love: Does it measure up?

Assessed 5 measures of love: the Love Attitudes Scale, the Triangular Theory of Love Scale, the Passionate Love Scale, the Relationship Rating Form, and a measure of love and attachment (Shaver & Hazan, 1987). The measures were given to 391 unmarried college students. Correlations revealed predictable relations among the subscales; however, psychometric analyses revealed problems in some of the measures. Factor analysis yielded 6 factors for the Love Attitudes Scale and 1 for the Passionate Love Scale, similar to previous research. Results for the Triangular Theory of Love Scale and for the Relationship Rating Form suggest strong interdependency among each measure's subscales. Factors analysis of all subscales together yielded 5 distinct factors, reflecting themes of passionate love, closeness, ambivalence, secure attachment, and practicality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assessing the Personality Psychopathology Five (PSY-5) in adolescents: New MMPI–A Scales.

The Personality Psychopathology Five (PSY-5; A. R. Harkness & J. L. McNulty, 1994) is a dimensional model of personality. Scales to measure the PSY-5 in adolescents were constructed from Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory—Adolescents (MMPI–A) items. From the MMPI-2-based PSY-5 scales (A. R. Harkness, J. L. McNulty, & Y. S. Ben-Porath, 1995), 104 items are found in the MMPI–A booklet. Replicated rational selection (A. R. Harkness, J. L. McNulty, & Y. S. Ben-Porath, 1994) was used to identify additional items from questions unique to the MMPI–A. Preliminary scales were refined with internal psychometric analyses using the MMPI–A normative (N?=?1,620; J. N. Butcher, C. L. Williams, J. R. Graham, R. P. Archer, A. Tellegen, Y. S. Ben-Porath, & B. Kaemmer, 1992) and clinical (N?=?713; C. L. Williams & J. N. Butcher, 1989) samples. The median coefficient alpha for the 5 scales was .76 in both samples; the mean absolute scale intercorrelation was .32 in the normative sample and .30 in the clinical sample. Correlations with collateral data supported the construct validity of the scales. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

MMPI—2 findings in schizophrenia and depression.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory—2 profile differences between patients with a discharge diagnosis of schizophrenia (n?=?42) vs. depression (n?=?42) were investigated. Multivariate analyses of variance indicated significant multivariate effects associated with diagnosis for the basic validity and clinical scales and for the content scales. The depression group obtained significantly higher mean scale scores on Scales 2 (Depression), 4 (Psychopathic Deviate), 7 (Psychasthenia), O (Social Introversion), Anxiety, Depression (DEP), and Social Discomfort. In an attempt to replicate work by Y. S. Ben-Porath, J. N. Butcher, & J. R. Graham (1991), a stepwise multiple regression analysis was performed to predict diagnosis, with similar findings obtained. Scale 2 was identified as the 1 significant clinical scale predictor. Two content scales, DEP and Bizarre Mentation, were identified as contributing significantly to prediction beyond Scale 2. When the order of the analysis was reversed, none of the basic clinical and validity scales contributed beyond prediction afforded by the content scales. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)