Investigation of surface modifications in ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) rubber due to tracking under a.c. and d.c. voltages

In the present work, tracking phenomena has been studied with the ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) material under the a.c. and d.c. voltages, with ammonium chloride/acid rain solution as the contaminant. It is noticed that the tracking time depends on the conductivity and flow rate of the contaminant. The physico-chemical analyses viz. wide angle X-ray diffraction (WAXD), thermo-gravimetric differential thermal analysis (TG-DTA) and the differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) studies, were carried out and it was concluded that the tracking process is a surface degradation process. The tracking time is different for a.c. and d.c. voltages.     

A.c. and d.c. conduction processes in octakis[(4-tert-butylbenzylthio)-porphyrazinato]Cu(II) thin films with gold electrodes

The d.c. and a.c. electrical transport properties of Au/Pz/Au devices with various thickness of Pz(octakis[(4-tert-butylbenzylthio)-porphyrazinato]Cu(II)) layer have been investigated. Measurements revealed that, in contrast to previously investigated Au/Pc/Au structures, low voltage d.c. behaviour of the films can be described by the field-lowering mechanisms with a log(J) ∝ V ^1/2 current density-voltage characteristics under forward and reverse bias. For high reverse voltages, the observed ln(J/V ²) – 1/V characteristics indicated that the origin of conduction mechanism is Fowler–Nordheim tunnelling (FNT). On the other hand, the voltage dependence of current density at the higher forward-voltage region indicates that the mechanism of conduction in Au/Pz/Au devices is space charge limited conduction dominated by exponential trap distribution. A thickness independent barrier height was observed for tunnelling, while the total trap concentration show a general tendency to decrease with increasing film thickness. The a.c. conductivity showed two regions in the ln(σ _a.c.) – ln( f ) plots having different slopes, leading to the conclusion that for low frequency region, the dominant conduction mechanism is a small polaron tunnelling at all temperatures, whereas for high frequency region, correlated barrier hopping model is the dominant mechanism in the investigated devices.     

D.C. I–V characteristics and steady-state photoconductivity of Au/Pb2CrO5/SnO2 sandwich-structure films under illumination in the visible region

The room temperature d.c. current–voltage (I–V) characteristics of an Au/Pb2CrO5/SnO2 sandwich-structure 1.39 μm thick film have been measured for d.c. voltages, Vd.c., in the range 0.25 V≤Vd.c.≤5.0 V. These measurements were carried out under both dark and visible-light illumination conditions. For Vd.c.<2.5 V, the I–V curves of the sample in both dark and light environments were found to be non-linear and conform to space-charge-limited (SCL) current governed by traps uniformly distributed in energy. At higher d.c. voltages, a nearly Mott–Gurney V2 behaviour of the dark current has been observed, whereas the I–V behaviour of the illuminated specimen was a combination of an ohmic conduction and a V2 dependence at low illumination levels and became highly ohmic at large light intensities. This behaviour can be understood in terms of a reduction in the SCL dark current in favour of a larger ohmic d.c. photocurrent as a result of neutralization of the majority-carrier space charge by the photogenerated minority carriers of the electron–hole pairs produced under the illumination with visible light of energy ℏω≅EG(∼2.1–2.3 eV for the Pb₂CrO₅ material). The d.c. photocurrent, I_phot, at a fixed d.c. voltage, was found to follow a power-law dependence on light intensity, F, of the form I_phot∝F^γ, with the exponent γ being dependent on the applied d.c. voltage. At the low-voltage side (V_d.c.<1.5 V), γ∼0.5, a value usually obtained when the photoconductivity behaviour is governed by bimolecular recombination mechanisms. As the d.c. voltage is increased further, γ increases monotonically until it saturates at a value of about 0.9 for d.c. voltages beyond 3.5 V, where monomolecular recombination processes seem to be more operative with increasing d.c. voltage. This revised version was published online in November 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Influences of d.c. and a.c. fields on the dielectric properties of relaxor ferroelectric ceramics

The influence of direct and alternating current fields on the dielectric properties of PMN-PZN-PT relaxor ferroelectric ceramics is examined. The reduction of both dielectric constant and dielectric loss by the applied d.c. bias field was demonstrated. An opposite trend was observed on the a.c. field dependence of dielectric response. The analysis revealed that d.c. bias reduces the degree of frequency dispersion, whereas a.c. drive increases it linearly. It is shown that the results obtained are consistent with the predictions of the glass model employing the concept of slow dipoles and frozen dipoles.     

D.c. and a.c. conduction in amorphous titanium dioxide thin films

The d.c. and a.c. measurements were performed with two groups of vacuum- deposited amorphous TiO₂ thin films which had metal-TiO₂-metal sandwich structures. The d.c. conduction process and the frequency dependence of the a.c. conductivity σ_ac of “group 1” samples,which contained numerous oxygen vacancies, showed the three-dimensional Poole-Frenkel effect and σ_ac was proportional to the frequency ? over the range 50 Hz–50 kHz. “Group 2” samples, in which the vacancies were subsequently removed by heat treatment in air, showed the three-dimensional anomalous Poole-Frenkel effect and σ_ac was proportional to ?ⁿ where n was 0.7–0.8.     

Ion bombardment effects in plasma deposition of hydrogenated amorphous silicon carbide films: A comparative study of d.c. and r.f. discharges

The structure and the properties of hydrogenated amorphous silicon carbide films produced at room temperature by d.c. and r.f. glow discharge decomposition of silane and ethylene were studied with a systematic control of the ion flux at the surface of the growing film. The composition and structure of the films were monitored by measuring their IR absorption, their refractive index and their optical gap. The ion fluxes were determined from the saturation current of a small grid probe located in the substrate holder.It was found that d.c. cathodic and r.f. films show an inorganic structure with a dispersed carbon phase while d.c. anodic films exhibit mainly hydrogenated carbon clusters. These structural changes are thought to result from differences in the energies of the bombarding ions.The versatility of the r.f. and d.c. proximity discharges in comparison with d.c. discharges (anodic and cathodic films) is also emphasized.     

Digital feedback loops for d.c. SQUIDs

Digital feedback loops for d.c. SQUIDs using pulse-rate modulation are proposed and investigated by simulations and measurements. The design of a d.c. SQUID magnetometer yields a simulated energy resolution of ≈ 11 h (h = Planck's constant) where ≈ 3 h corresponds to additional noise due to the feedback loop. Measurements at Josephson sampler prototype chips showed that the digital feedback loop is very stable and fast enough to obtain a flicker-free display on an oscilloscope. In contrast to conventional feedback loops an integration of sensor and feedback loop on one or several chips with Josephson junctions seems feasible.     

Bias voltage dependence properties of cadmium oxide films deposited by d.c. reactive magnetron sputtering

Cadmium oxide films were grown on glass substrates using d.c. reactive magnetron sputtering technique by sputtering from a metallic cadmium target in an oxygen partial pressure of 1×10^–3 mbar under various substrate bias voltages. The substrate bias voltage significantly influences the crystallographic structure of the deposited films. The influence of substrate bias voltage on the electrical and optical properties of the films was systematically studied. The films formed at a substrate temperature of 473 K and bias voltage of –80 V showed an electrical resistivity of 1×10^–3 cm, optical transmittance of 86%, optical band gap of 2.47 eV and a figure of merit of 7×10^{–3 –1}.     

Development of a Nb3Sn multifilamentary composite conductor for a.c. use

A Nb₃Sn composite conductor with ≈ 10 000 submicron diameter filaments has been manufactured using the external diffusion process. A.c. losses were greatly reduced by the use of a fine filament size (0.53 μm, design value), a tight twist pitch (0.87 mm) and a small wire diameter (0.153 mm) with a bronze matrix. In an a.c. field with a frequency of 50 Hz and amplitude of 2.0 T, the hysteresis loss and the coupling current loss were observed to be 465 kW m⁻³ and 26 kW m⁻³, respectively. A triplex conductor was constructed by cabling three strands at a twisting pitch of 3 mm, and a small coil was wound from this cable (i.d. 11 mm, o.d. 33 mm, axial length 19 mm). With d.c. the coil generated a field of 1.3 T at the critical current, l_c of 37.4 A. When the coil was operated at 50 Hz, with an exciting current of I_c, the observed loss averaged over the windings was 240 kW m⁻³. The quenching current for 50 Hz operation was 53 A at a maximum field of 1.8 T. This was considerably higher than the critical values under d.c. conditions. Preliminary studies have shown that, if this conductor is used in superconducting armature windings of rotating machines, economical benefits are obtained compared with the use of conventional armatures.     

Dislocation subsystem stability in f.c.c. materials under intensive loading

Dislocation kinetics in f.c.c. crystals being deformed under conditions of (1) constant excessive stress τ_dyn, (2) constant applied deforming stress τ and (3) constant load was investigated. It was shown that there are two stationary states of dislocation density ρ_s⁽¹⁾ and ρ_s⁽²⁾ (for single crystals ρ_s⁽¹⁾=0). The domain between these two stationary states corresponds to dynamic softening of deforming crystal. The last region corresponds to strain hardening.     

Addition of “Living” Polymers onto C60.

Various “living” polymers were grafted onto C₆₀ The number of arms of the so obtained “star” molecules can be controlled by stoechiometry and/or by varying the reactivity of the carbanion on the “living” chain against a double bond on the C₆₀. Even the oxanion of “living” polyethylenoxide is able to add onto the reactive double bonds on C₆₀. In some conditions, the carbanions present on these alkaline salts of grafted fullerenes becomes able to initiate anionic polymerization of vinyl monomers. Using “living” poly(phenylvinylsulfoxide) as a precursor polymer for PA, polyacetylene chains could be attached to the fullerene.     

The electrical properties and d.c. degradation characteristics of silver doped ZnO varistors

ZnO-Bi₂O₃-based ceramic varistors containing up to 2500 p.p.m. Ag₂O were prepared by the mixed oxide route. The products were characterized in terms of current-voltage (I–V) behaviour, capacitance-voltage (C-V) behaviour and d.c. degradation behaviour. Additions of silver did not significantly affect ZnO grain growth or sintered density, but decreased the non-linearity exponent, a, and increased the breakdown voltage. Silver-doped specimens exhibited an unusual d.c. degradation behaviour, with the leakage current initially decreasing before reaching a stable value. For doping levels 500 p.p.m. Ag₂O, the change in breakdown voltage was positive for both forward and reverse directions. Silver doping appeared to increase the Schottky barrier height under conditions of continuous d.c. stress and improve the degradation behaviour. The optimum levels of Ag₂O addition were in the range 500–1000 p.p.m.     

Model for the a.c. hall effect of high-T c superconductors

The sign of the Cooper pairs in the superconducting state of the currently found high-T _c superconductors can be best measured by utilizing the so-called a.c. Hall effect. In this experiment a d.c. magnetic field is applied normal to the surface of the superconductor and a planar electromagnetic wave perpendicularly polarized incident upon the sample surface. By measuring the reflected electric field polarized in the incident plane, one could determine the sign as well as the magnitude of the a.c. Hall coefficient. The measurement provides a direct means to determine the sign and density of the Cooper pairs in the superconducting state of the high-T _c superconducting sample.     

Thickness effect on properties of titanium film deposited by d.c. magnetron sputtering and electron beam evaporation techniques

This paper reports effect of thickness on the properties of titanium (Ti) film deposited on Si/SiO₂ (100) substrate using two different methods: d.c. magnetron sputtering and electron beam (e-beam) evaporation technique. The structural and morphological characterization of Ti film were performed using X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). XRD pattern revealed that the films deposited using d.c. magnetron sputtering have HCP symmetry with preferred orientation along (002) plane, while those deposited with e-beam evaporation possessed fcc symmetry with preferred orientation along (200) plane. The presence of metallic Ti was also confirmed by XPS analysis. FESEM images depicted that the finite sized grains were uniformly distributed on the surface and AFM micrographs revealed roughness of the film. The electrical resistivity measured using four-point probe showed that the film deposited using d.c. magnetron sputtering has lower resistivity of ～13 μΩcm than the film deposited using e-beam evaporation technique, i.e. ～60 μΩcm. The hardness of Ti films deposited using d.c. magnetron sputtering has lower value (～7·9 GPa) than the film deposited using e-beam technique (～9·4 GPa).     

D.c. and a.c. electrical properties of vacuum evaporated thin SiO/GeO2 films

The d.c. and a.c. electrical properties were studied for various compositions of SiO/GeO₂ co-evaporated thin films carrying aluminium electrodes, in the temperature range 193–413 K. A.c. measurements were made over the frequency range 2x10²–10⁶Hz. The value of the d.c. activation energy was found to decrease with increasing GeO₂ content in the SiO. In the region of high applied field (above 10⁶ Vm^–1, the conduction mechanism is governed by Schottky emission at the blocking contact. The a.c. electrical conductivity, (), varies with frequency according to the relation () ^s, where the exponent s was found to be dependent on temperature and frequency. The a.c. conduction at low temperature was due to an electronic hopping process. The number of localized sites was estimated from the a.c. measurements for different compositions of SiO/GeO₂ using the models proposed by Elliott and by Pollak, and the values are compared. The Elliott model satisfactorily accounts for the observed a.c. electrical results. A correlation was found between activation energy, optical band gap, conductivity and number of localized sites for the various compositions of SiO/GeO₂ films. The relative dielectric constant, _r, and loss factor, tan , were found to increase with the increase of GeO₂ content in the films.     

Optimizing indium tin oxide thin films with bipolar d.c.-pulsed magnetron sputtering for electrochromic device applications

In this paper, indium tin oxide (ITO) films were prepared by bipolar d.c.-pulsed magnetron sputtering in a mixture of argon and oxygen onto unheated glass substrates. A target of ITO with 10 weight percent (wt %) tin was used. The influences of ratios of t^– _on/t⁺ _on (negative pulse-on time/positive pulse-on time) on the optical, electrical, and structural properties of ITO films have been investigated. The correlations between the deposition parameters and the film properties were discussed. An optimal condition based on reactive bipolar d.c.-pulsed sputtering for obtaining high transmittance, low resistivity, and low surface roughness of ITO films with high deposition rate is suggested. Then, ITO films grown at room temperature by bipolar d.c.-pulsed sputtering were used to form electrochromic devices of WO₃. Better electrochromic performances were found in comparison to those measured with commercially available ITO films on glass substrates.     

The effect of pre-deformation on grain boundary non-equilibrium segregation during recrystallization in f.c.c alloy

By means of the particle tracking autoradiography (PTA) technique, optical and electron microscopy, the non-equilibrium segregation of boron at moving boundary during recrystallization in Fe-30%Ni alloy was investigated. The influence of pre-deformation on the segregation was analysed. The results indicated that there was a abnormal boron segregation at the moving boundaries of the new grain during recrystallization. Its intensity was depended on the pre-deformation degree and the moving speed of the boundary. The TEM result showed that the dislocation density in front of moving boundary obviously increase. The phenomena are discussed in terms of the widening grain boundary mechanism.     

Cyclic voltammetric, a.c. and d.c. polarization behavior of boron-doped CVD diamond

Boron-doped polycrystalline diamond films have been deposited over a molybdenum substrate by the microwave plasma CVD process using a methane and hydrogen gas mixture at a pressure of 35.7 Torr. Boron doping of diamond has been achieved in situ by using a solid boron source while growing diamond in the CVD process. The a.c. impedance of boron-doped diamond films in 0.5 M NaCl solution has been determined and compared with the results obtained with a molybdenum substrate. Capacitance, solution resistance, and polarization resistance (corrosion rate) have been determined using the experimental data plotted in Nyquist and Bode formats. D.C. polarization techniques such as linear and Tafel polarization have been used to evaluate the doped diamond coated molybdenum and molybdenum for corrosion resistance characteristics in terms of charge-transfer coefficients and corrosion rate. Cyclic voltammetry has been used to evaluate the molybdenum, platinum, and doped and undoped diamond coated molybdenum materials in 0.5 M NaCl solution. We have observed two time constants with a doped diamond electrode / solution interface. Solution resistance was found to be constant irrespective of the electrode in the same electrolyte solution.     

Organic electronic ratchets doing work

The possibility to extract work from periodic, undirected forces has intrigued scientists for over a century—in particular, the rectification of undirected motion of particles by ratchet potentials, which are periodic but asymmetric functions. Introduced by Smoluchowski and Feynman to study the (dis)ability to generate motion from an equilibrium situation, ratchets operate out of equilibrium, where the second law of thermodynamics no longer applies. Although ratchet systems have been both identified in nature and used in the laboratory for the directed motion of microscopic objects, electronic ratchets have been of limited use, as they typically operate at cryogenic temperatures and generate subnanoampere currents and submillivolt voltages. Here, we present organic electronic ratchets that operate up to radio frequencies at room temperature and generate currents and voltages that are orders of magnitude larger. This enables their use as a d.c. power source. We integrated the ratchets into logic circuits, in which they act as the d.c. equivalent of the a.c. transformer, and generate enough power to drive the circuitry. Our findings show that electronic ratchets may be of actual use.