Correlation of microstructure and fracture properties of API X70 pipeline steels

Effects of microstructure on fracture toughness and transition temperature of high-toughness X70 pipeline steels were investigated in this study. Three types of steels were fabricated by varying alloying elements such as C, Cu, and Mo, and their microstructures were varied by rolling conditions such as finish rolling temperature and finish cooling temperature. Charpy V-notch (CVN) impact tests and pressed notch drop-weight tear tests (DWTT) were conducted on the rolled steel specimens. The Charpy impact test results indicated that the specimens rolled in the single-phase region of the steel containing a reduced amount of C and Mo had the highest upper shelf energy (USE) and the lowest energy transition temperature (ETT) because of the appropriate formation of acicular, quasipolygonal, or polygonal ferrite and the decreased fraction of martensite-austenite constituents. Most of the specimens rolled in the single-phase region also showed excellent DWTT properties as the percent shear area (pct SA) well exceeded 85 pct, irrespective of finish cooling temperatures, while their USE was higher than that of the specimens rolled in the two-phase region. Thus, overall fracture properties of the specimens rolled in the single-phase region were better than those of the specimens rolled in the two-phase region, considering both USE and pct SA.     

Correlation of microstructure and fracture properties of API X70 pipeline steels

Effects of microstructure on fracture toughness and transition temperature of high-toughness X70 pipeline steels were investigated in this study. Three types of steels were fabricated by varying alloying elements such as C, Cu, and Mo, and their microstructures were varied by rolling conditions such as finish rolling temperature and finish cooling temperature. Charpy V-notch (CVN) impact tests and pressed notch drop-weight tear tests (DWTT) were conducted on the rolled steel specimens. The charpy impact test results indicated that the specimens rolled in the single-phase region of the steel containing a reduced amount of C and Mo had the highest upper shelf energy (USE) and the lowest energy transition temperature (ETT) because of the appropriate formation of acicular, quasipolygonal, or polygonal ferrite and the decreased fraction of martensite-austenite constituents. Most of the specimens rolled in the single-phase region also showed excellent DWTT properties as the percent shear area (pct SA) well exceeded 85 pct, irrespective of finish cooling temperatures, while their USE was higher than that of the specimens rolled in the two-phase region. Thus, overall fracture properties of the specimens rolled in the single-phase region were better than those of the specimens rolled in the two-phase region, considering both USE and pct SA. are jointly appointed with the Materials Science and Engineering Department, Pohang University of Science and Technology.     

Effects of Specimen Thickness and Notch Shape on Fracture Modes in the Drop Weight Tear Test of API X70 and X80 Linepipe Steels

This study is concerned with effects of specimen thickness and notch shape on drop weight tear test (DWTT) properties and fracture modes of API X70 and API X80 low-carbon microalloyed linepipe steels. Detailed fractographic analysis of broken DWTT specimens showed that the fracture initiated in an initial cleavage mode near the specimen notch and that some delaminations occurred at the center of the fracture surface. The chevron notch (CN) DWTT specimens had broader initial cleavage areas than the pressed notch (PN) DWTT specimens. The larger inverse fracture areas (i.e., cleavage areas close the hammer impact side) appeared in the PN DWTT specimens, because their higher fracture initiation energy at the notch allowed a higher strain hardening in the hammer-impacted region. The number and length of delaminations were larger in the CN DWTT specimens than in the PN DWTT specimens, and increased with increasing specimen thickness due to the plane strain condition effect. As the test temperature decreased, the tendency of delaminations increased, but delaminations were not found when the cleavage fracture prevailed at very low temperatures. The DWTT test results such as upper shelf energy (USE) and energy transition temperature (ETT) were discussed with relation to microstructures and fracture modes including initial cleavage fracture, ductile fracture, inverse fracture, and delaminations.     

Effects of Dynamic Strain Hardening Exponent on Abnormal Cleavage Fracture Occurring During Drop Weight Tear Test of API X70 and X80 Linepipe Steels

In this study, drop weight tear tests (DWTT) were conducted on API X70 and X80 linepipe steels fabricated with various compositions and rolling and cooling conditions in order to correlate the strain hardening with the abnormal cleavage fracture occurring in the hammer-impacted area. Area fractions of fracture modes were measured from fractured DWTT specimens, and the measured data were analyzed in relation to microstructures, Charpy impact energy, and strain hardening. All the steels consisted of fine acicular ferrite, together with some bainitic ferrite, granular bainite, and martensite-austenite constituent. As the volume fraction of acicular ferrite increased, the area fraction of DWTT abnormal cleavage fracture decreased because the toughness of acicular ferrite was higher than other microstructures. The area fraction of abnormal cleavage fracture was weakly related with strain hardening exponents obtained from the quasi-static tensile and compressive tests, but showed better correlation with those obtained from the dynamic compressive test. This tendency could be more clearly observed when steels having similar Charpy impact energy levels were grouped. Since the DWTT was performed under a dynamic loading condition, thus, the abnormal cleavage fracture behavior should be related with the strain hardening analyzed under a dynamic loading condition.     

Effects of Microstructure on CVN Impact Toughness in Thermomechanically Processed High Strength Microalloyed Steel

Investigation on the correlation between microstructure and CVN impact toughness is of practical importance for the microstructure design of high strength microalloyed steels. In this work, three steels with characteristic microstructures were produced by cooling path control, i.e., steel A with granular bainite (GB), steel B with polygonal ferrite (PF) and martensite-austenite (M-A) constituent, and steel C with the mixture of bainitic ferrite (BF), acicular ferrite (AF), and M-A constituent. Under the same alloy composition and controlled rolling, similar ductile-to-brittle transition temperatures were obtained for the three steels. Steel A achieved the highest upper shelf energy (USE), while large variation of impact absorbed energy has been observed in the ductile-to-brittle transition region. With apparently large-sized PF and M-A constituent, steel B shows the lowest USE and delamination phenomenon in the ductile-to-brittle transition region. Steel C exhibits an extended upper shelf region, intermediate USE, and the fastest decrease of impact absorbed energy in the ductile-to-brittle transition region. The detailed CVN impact behavior is studied and then linked to the microstructural features.     

Correlation of rolling condition,microstructure, and low-temperature toughness of X70 pipeline steels

Correlation of rolling conditions, microstructure, and low-temperature toughness of high-toughness X70 pipeline steels was investigated in this study. Twelve kinds of steel specimens were fabricated by vacuum-induction melting and hot rolling, and their microstructures were varied by rolling conditions. Charpy V-notch (CVN) impact test and drop-weight tear test (DWTT) were conducted on the rolled steel specimens in order to analyze low-temperature fracture properties. Charpy impact test results indicated that the energy transition temperature (ETT) was below −100 °C when the finish cooling temperature range was 350 °C to 500 °C, showing excellent low-temperature toughness. The ETT increased because of the formation of bainitic ferrite and martensite at low finish cooling temperatures and because of the increase in effective grain size due to the formation of coarse ferrites at high finish cooling temperatures. Most of the specimens also showed excellent DWTT properties as the percent shear area well exceeded 85 pct, irrespective of finish rolling temperatures or finish cooling temperatures, although a large amount of inverse fracture occurred at some finish cooling temperatures.     

Correlation of crack-tip opening angle for stable crack propagation with charpy and drop-weight tear test properties in high-toughness API X70 pipeline steels

Correlation between Charpy V-notch (CVN) impact properties, drop-weight tear test (DWTT) properties, and crack-tip opening angles for stable crack propagation (CTOA_sc) in high-toughness API X70 pipeline steels was investigated in this study. Two-specimen CTOA test (TSCT) was conducted on the rolled steel materials to measure the CTOA_sc, and the test results were compared to the CVN and DWTT data to find correlations between them. The CVN total energy density showed an almost 1:1 linear correlation with the DWTT initiation energy density. The TSCT results indicated that the materials rolled in the single-phase region had the larger CTOA_sc as well as the higher CVN and DWTT energy density than those rolled in the two-phase region because their microstructures were composed of acicular ferrites and fine polygonal ferrites. The CTOA_sc had a better correlation with the DWTT propagation energy density or the CVN total energy density than the DWTT total energy density. In particular, the value of sin (2CTOA_sc) reliably represented a linear proportional relation to the DWTT propagation energy density.     

Effective grain size and charpy impact properties of high-toughness X70 pipeline steels

The correlation of microstructure and Charpy V-notch (CVN) impact properties of a high-toughness API X70 pipeline steel was investigated in this study. Six kinds of steel were fabricated by varying the hot-rolling conditions, and their microstructures, effective grain sizes, and CVN impact properties were analyzed. The CVN impact test results indicated that the steels rolled in the single-phase region had higher upper-shelf energies (USEs) and lower energy-transition temperatures (ETTs) than the steels rolled in the two-phase region because their microstructures were composed of acicular ferrite (AF) and fine polygonal ferrite (PF). The decreased ETT in the steels rolled in the single-phase region could be explained by the decrease in the overall effective grain size due to the presence of AF having a smaller effective grain size. On the other hand, the absorbed energy of the steels rolled in the two-phase region was considerably lower because a large amount of dislocations were generated inside PFs during rolling. It was further decreased when coarse martensite or cementite was formed during the cooling process.     

Tempered martensite embrittlement in SAE 4340 steel

The toughness of SAE 4340 steel with low (0.003 wt pct) and high (0.03 wt pct) phosphorus has been evaluated by Charpy V notch (CVN) impact and compact tension plane strain fracture toughness (K _1c) tests of specimens quenched and tempered up to 673 K (400°C). Both the high and low P steel showed the characteristic tempered martensite embrittlement (TME) plateau or trough in room temperature CVN impact toughness after tempering at temperatures between 473 K (200°C) and 673 K (400°C). The CVN energy absorbed by low P specimens after tempering at any temperature was always about 10 J higher than that of the high P specimens given the same heat treatment. Interlath carbide initiated cleavage across the martensite laths was identified as the mechanism of TME in the low P 4340 steel, while intergranular fracture, apparently due to a combination of P segregation and carbide formation at prior austenite grain boundaries, was associated with TME in the high P steel.K _IC values reflected TME in the high P steels but did not show TME in the low P steel, a result explained by the formation of a narrow zone of ductile fracture adjacent to the fatigue precrack during fracture toughness testing. The ductile fracture zone was attributed to the low rate of work hardening characteristic of martensitic steels tempered above 473 K (200°C).     

Effects of Strain Rate and Test Temperature on Torsional Deformation Behavior of API X70 and X80 Linepipe Steels

This study aimed at investigating effects of strain rate and test temperature on deformation and fracture behavior of three API X70 and X80 linepipe steels fabricated by varying alloying elements and hot-rolling conditions. Quasi-static and dynamic torsional tests were conducted on these steels having different grain sizes and volume fractions of acicular ferrite and polygonal ferrite, using a torsional Kolsky bar, and then the test data were compared via microstructures, tensile properties, and adiabatic shear band formation. The dynamic torsional test results indicated that the steels rolled in the single-phase region had the higher maximum shear stress than the steel rolled in the two-phase region, because their microstructures were composed mainly of acicular ferrites. Particularly in the API X80 steel rolled in the single-phase region, increased dynamic torsional properties could be explained by the decrease in the overall effective grain size due to the presence of acicular ferrite having smaller effective grain size. The possibility of the adiabatic shear band formation at low temperatures was also analyzed by the energy required for void initiation and difference in effective grain size.     

Quench embrittlement of hardened 5160 steel as a function of austenitizing temperature

Charpy V-notch (CVN) specimens from experimental heats of 5160 steel containing 0.001 and 0.034 mass pct phosphorus were austenitized at temperatures between 830 °C and 1100 °C, quenched to martensite, and tempered at temperatures between 100 °C and 500 °C. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to characterize the fracture surfaces of tested CVN specimens and carbide formation on prior austenite grain boundaries. Quench embrittlement, the susceptibility to intergranular fracture in as-quenched and low-temperature tempered high-carbon steels due to cementite formation as affected by phosphorus segregation on austenite grain boundaries, developed readily in specimens of the high phosphorus steel austenitized at all temperatures. The low phosphorus steel developed quench embrittlement only after austenitizing at 1100 °C. Intergranular fractures correlated with low room-temperature CVN impact toughness. The results are discussed with respect to the dissolution of carbides during austenitizing and the effect of phosphorus on grain boundary, carbide formation, and stability.     

Correlation of Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Thermomechanically Processed Low-Carbon Steels Containing Boron and Copper

The correlation of the microstructure and mechanical properties of thermomechanically processed low-carbon steels containing B and Cu was investigated in this study. Eighteen kinds of steel specimens were fabricated by varying B and Cu contents and finish cooling temperatures (FCTs) after controlled rolling, and then tensile and Charpy impact tests were conducted on them. Continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagrams of the B-free and B-added steel specimens under nondeformed and deformed conditions were constructed by a combination of deformation dilatometry and metallographic methods. The addition of a very small amount of B remarkably decreased the transformation start temperatures near a bainite start temperature (Bs) and thus expanded the formation region of low-temperature transformation phases such as degenerate upper bainite (DUB) and lower bainite (LB) to slower cooling rates. On the other hand, a deformation in the austenite region promoted the formation of quasipolygonal ferrite (QPF) and granular bainite (GB) with an increase in transformation start temperatures. The tensile test results indicated that tensile strength primarily increased with decreasing FCT, while the yield strength did not vary much, except in some specimens. The addition of B and Cu, however, increased the tensile and yield strengths simultaneously because of the significant microstructural change occasionally affected by the FCT. The Charpy impact test results indicated that the steel specimens predominantly composed of LB and lath martensite (LM) had lower upper-shelf energy (USE) than those consisting of GB or DUB, but had nearly equivalent or rather lower ductile-to-brittle transition temperature (DBTT) in spite of the increased strength. According to the electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) analysis data, it was confirmed that LB and LM microstructures had a relatively smaller effective grain size than GB or DUB microstructures, which enhanced the tortuosity of cleavage crack propagation, thereby resulting in a decrease in DBTT.     

高钢级低温管线钢的韧化机制及控制技术

针对高钢级管线钢在低温服役环境条件下韧性断裂止裂控制难题,分析了高钢级管线钢的低温断裂机理,明确了影响DWTT性能的两个重要因素。通过热模拟实验,讨论了提高DWTT性能的控制技术。采用粗轧再结晶区低温段大变形,增加粗轧阶段总累积变形量,及将精轧温度降低到临近Ar3的温度范围内,并施加足够的累积变形量,可获得一定数量的超细晶多边形铁素体,将板材心部的平均有效晶粒尺寸细化到2.5μm,使-60℃下DWTT断口剪切面积达到100%,为大口径高钢级管线钢的研发生产提供理论依据和技术参考。     

Evaluating the Dynamic Toughness Properties of Pipeline Steels

Abstract

The dynamic toughness properties of three plates of the same grade of a high strength low alloy pipeline steel were evaluated by impact testing DWTT and CVN specimens sampled from the plates at 45° to the rolling direction. Impact testing was performed on either a conventional pendulum-type Charpy test machine or a Dynatup 8000 instrumented Drop- Weight Test Machine, at temperatures down to - 80°C. The shear fracture mode was found to be dependent on the type of specimen tested, and the ratio of crack initiation energy to the crack propagation energy expended in breaking a standard DWTT specimen appeared to provide a more definite indication of the onset of brittle fracture than either the shear area or total energy by itself.

Résumé

Les propriétés de ténacité dynamique de trois plaques du même type d'acier microallié ont été examinées d'aprés l'essai par choc d'échantillons DWTT et CVN prélevés it 45° de la direction du laminage. Les essais ont été réalisés soit sur une machine Charpy conventionnelle soit sur un mouton vertical instrumenté par le système Dynatup 8000, ceci à des températures atteignant – 80°C. Le mode de rupture par cisaillement dépend du type d'échantillons, et le rapport de l'énergie d'initiation des fissures et de l'énergie de propagation dépensées pour briser un échantillon standard DWTT semble donner un meilleur indice de l'apparition de la rupture fragile que l'aire cisaillée ou l'energie totale.     

Normalization of the Cold Shortness of Plate Steel: II. Short-Brittleness Thresholds in Pipe Tests

The following serial curves are obtained for a pipe steel of strength class K65 (Kh80): strength and plasticity curves during tension in the temperature range from–80 to +20°C, fracture energy from drop weight tear test (DWTT) diagrams, and impact toughness KCV curves (from–180 to +20°C). The ductile–brittle transition temperature range determined from the DWTT energy is shown to be higher than that determined from a KCV diagram by 80 K. The KCV^–40 criterion is concluded to be more reliable than the DWTT^–20 criterion. KCV and DWTT tests are shown to reproduce the crack starting conditions in a pipe, and the resistance of a high-strength pipe steel to extended fracture should be estimated using other criteria.