中国西南山区GEOV1、GLASS和MODIS LAI产品的对比分析

叶面积指数(Leaf Area Index,LAI)是表征植被生物物理变化和冠层结构特征的关键参数,目前存在多个全球范围、长时间序列LAI产品,对其进行验证是LAI产品应用的重要前提,然而目前山区的验证工作尤其少见。在我国西南山区选取6个典型样区,考虑山区复杂地形特征,从产品时空完整性以及对山区植被时空特征表征能力等方面对GEOV1、GLASS和MODIS LAI产品进行对比分析。研究结果表明:(1)相比于地形平坦地区,在山区随海拔和地形起伏度的增加,LAI产品时空完整性呈递减的趋势,其中,GEOV1LAI表现最差,MODIS LAI次之,GLASS LAI表现最好;(2)GLASS LAI和GEOV1LAI的空间分布合理且具有较好的一致性,MODIS LAI的空间分布和二者存在差异,3种LAI产品均难以准确反映山区植被垂直带谱的变化特征;(3)草地类型LAI产品间差值较小,林地和农作物GLASS LAI和GEOV1LAI产品一致性较好,MODIS LAI产品和二者存在较大的差异;(4)GLASS LAI时间序列曲线平滑且连续,GEOV1LAI存在时间不连续现象,MODIS LAI季相变化中的波动现象比较严重;各产品不仅难以准确反映冬季的常绿针叶林LAI,而且难以准确表征样区内农田作物轮作的物候信息。对比分析有助于发现LAI产品在山区存在的问题,并为今后LAI产品的算法改进提供帮助和参考。     

TM验证MODIS过火面积产品精度分析——以黑龙江省重大森林火灾为例

鉴于准确估测森林的过火面积对森林火灾的损失评估和过火区植被的恢复所具有的重要作用,选取了2006年～2010年黑龙江省51个重大森林火灾记录,分别利用MODIS的MOD14A2（Terra）火产品数据和TM遥感影像数据估算过火面积,并利用Kappa指数分析过火面积在数量和空间位置上的一致性。结果表明：在单个火场尺度上,小于3.72km2的森林火灾不适于利用MOD14A2产品来估算过火面积,而年过火总面积的相对误差小于15%。MOD14A2火产品可以有效地估测年度尺度上森林的过火面积;数量Kappa指数明显大于位置Kappa指数和标准Kappa指数,位置Kappa指数较低,这可能是由于MODIS数据的空间分辨率较低、林火记录坐标位置不够准确等原因造成的,有待进一步研究。     

基于Google Earth Engine的南方滨海盐沼植被时空演变特征分析

掌握滨海盐沼植被时空演变规律是科学开展滨海湿地生态系统管理的基础。滨海盐沼植物互花米草在中国海岸潮间带快速入侵与扩散,显著改变了原有滨海湿地的结构与功能,给滨海湿地保护与管理带来巨大的挑战。目前针对滨海盐沼植被时空动态的大尺度遥感分析还十分有限,人们对滨海盐沼植被空间分布的历史演变规律及其控制机制还缺乏足够的了解。实验基于Google Earth Engine平台和Landsat长时序历史影像,利用连续变化检测和分类算法反演近30 a中国南方(浙江以南)滨海盐沼植被的时空分布,分析潮汐淹水对滨海盐沼植被时空分布的影响。结果表明:(1)滨海盐沼植被总面积在2000～2004年出现短暂下降,之后呈现持续增长趋势;(2)滨海盐沼植被面积存在3种增长模式——波动、线性和指数增长;(3)滨海盐沼植被面积与淹水概率之间近似呈正态分布规律,植被时空分布表现为从低淹水区逐渐向高淹水区扩散的演变趋势。研究结果有助于理解滨海盐沼植被时空演变规律,为滨海湿地的科学管理提供决策支持。     

基于MODIS和AVHRR数据源的东北地区植被NDVI变化及其与气温和降水间的相关分析 

基于逐像元一元线性回归模型,应用MODIS NDVI数据对AVHRR-GIMMS NDVI进行时间序列拓展,拓展序列通过一致性检验,基于所建立的1982~2009年植被年最大NDVI数据集,在GIS平台上进行了植被NDVI变化和NDVI与年平均气温、年降水量之间的相关分析。研究结果表明:过去28 a间,植被年最大NDVI呈3个变化阶段:1982~1992年呈小幅上升趋势,1992~2006年呈缓慢下降趋势,2006~2009年呈缓慢回升态势。由空间变异分析得出NDVI变化相对大的区域主要分布在内蒙干旱和半干旱区。21世纪初和20世纪90年代相对于80年代NDVI值升高,3个阶段平均NDVI变化幅度为±0.3。 20世纪初,赤峰地区以及松嫩平原西部地区植被NDVI呈轻度增加的面积占全区6.45%。植被年最大NDVI与年平均气温、年降水量相关性空间差异明显。偏相关系数绝对值,气温大于降水的像元数占54%;综合分析,较降水而言,气温是东北全区植被年最大NDVI的主控影响因子。对于不同植被类型年最大NDVI,受气温影响强度由大到小依次为:森林>草地>沼泽湿地>灌丛>耕地;受降水影响按草地>耕地>灌丛>沼泽湿地>森林依次减弱。     

青藏高原1982~2015年FPAR时空变化分析

植被吸收利用太阳光合有效辐射比率反映了植被固碳释氧能力,根据青藏高原GIMMS NDVI3g（1982~2015年）和MODIS NDVI（2001~2015年）数据,采用非线性半理论半经验模型进行FPAR反演及时空变化分析。结果表明：①2001~2015年GIMMS NDVI3g和MODIS NDVI反演FPAR在空间分布上具有较高的一致性,相关系数为0.82（P<0.01）,年际变化趋势一致至少6年的区域占80%;②青藏高原FPAR受坡度和海拔影响较大,其中15~35坡度FPAR变化最快,700~2 100 m海拔区间FPAR值最大;不同坡向对应的FPAR除南坡方向偏低外其他方向差异不大。③1982~2015年青藏高原四季FPAR时空变化研究中,冬季FPAR年际变化最明显,约78.5%的区域表现为增长趋势;秋季FPAR下降区域最多,但超过71.5%区域变化不显著;④基于MODIS NDVI和GIMMS NDVI两数据反演的所有植被类型的FPAR都在2012年间出现小幅度下降趋势,且不同植被类型FPAR的年际变化趋势各不相同。     

祁连山区植被净初级生产力的空间变化特征分析

基于MODIS数据分析了2000~2010年祁连山区植被净初级生产力(Net Primary Productivity,NPP)的空间变化特征。结果显示:祁连山区植被NPP并不高,多年平均植被NPP仅为121.95gC/(m2·a),自东向西植被NPP逐渐减少。不同植被类型其NPP具有明显差异,大体上为:常绿阔叶林平原草地常绿针叶林典型草地农田高寒草甸草地荒漠草地落叶针叶林。祁连山区植被NPP变化在区域间也存在差异。植被NPP呈增长趋势的地区主要分布在青海年南山、拉脊山、达坂山和青海湖及其西侧,约占47.30%;乌鞘岭东部及以东的地区(约占1.97%)植被NPP呈减少趋势。降水是祁连山区植被NPP变化的主要因素,气温对植被NPP的影响并不明显,不合理的人类活动可能是造成部分区域植被NPP减少的重要原因。     

2001~2018年我国热异常点时空分布特征研究

基于2001~2018年MODIS标准产品,研究了我国及七大区域热异常点的时空分布特征。结果表明：空间分布上,热异常点主要分布在除西北、西南之外的大部分地区;年际趋势上,2001~2014年间热异常点数量持续上升,年均增长率为15.01%,2015年后逐年下降,年均下降率为14.96%。月季尺度上,热异常点在春、秋季节出现最为频繁（春：551 716个,秋：416 698个）,春、秋季相对在东北地区分布最多（春：164 898个,秋：186 727个）,东北地区月均数量10月最高（118 274个）;夏季热异常点数量最低（290 793个）,多分布于华东地区（120 455个）,华东地区月均数量6月最高（76 465个）;冬季数量为358 483个,且在华南地区分布最多（108 209个）,华南地区月均数量1月最高（37 770个）。研究有助于掌握我国典型区域的森林、草原火灾,以及由于秸秆焚烧、工业排放等引起热异常的变化情况,进而为区域灾害防治和环境监测提供技术支撑。     

基于MODIS数据的森林覆盖变化监测方法研究

自然灾害、森林采伐以及其它人为活动等都将导致森林覆盖的变化。遥感提供了大尺度范围监测森林覆盖变化的能力, 但要获得森林覆盖变化的信息, 则需要有效地从遥感影像中提取变化信息的技术方法。研究在借鉴美国宇航局(NASA ) 生产MODIS 土地覆盖变化(LCC) 产品所采用的算法基础上, 利用MODIS 数据, 分别采用红光- 近红外法、共生纹理矩阵法和基于相似度的变化检测方法对我国东北林区的森林覆盖变化监测方法进行了研究, 并用近年发生在黑龙江的重(特)大森林火灾为实例进行了验证。     

基于MODIS数据的森林可燃物分类方法——以黑龙江省为实验区

森林可燃物是森林燃烧环理论中的重要三要素之一,它是森林火灾发生的内因,对于火险等级预报、火行为预报、火灾扑救等森林防火工作具有重要意义。介绍了基于MODIS数据与GIS技术相结合的森林可燃物分类方法。在研究中,以黑龙江省为实验区,利用多时相的MODIS数据生成实验区16天的最大归一化植被指数后,通过主成分分析,采用非监督分类与监督分类相结合的方法,并在GIS技术的支持下,完成了实验区内的森林可燃物的分类,为进一步获得适合全国的利用现代高新技术的森林可燃物分类方法打下了坚实基础。     

基于MODIS数据的森林可燃物分类方法——以黑龙江省为实验区

森林可燃物是森林燃烧环理论中的重要三要素之一,它是森林火灾发生的内因,对于火险等级预报、火行为预报、火灾扑救等森林防火工作具有重要意义。介绍了基于MODIS数据与GIS技术相结合的森林可燃物分类方法。在研究中,以黑龙江省为实验区,利用多时相的MODIS数据生成实验区16天的最大归一化植被指数后,通过主成分分析,采用非监督分类与监督分类相结合的方法,并在GIS技术的支持下,完成了实验区内的森林可燃物的分类,为进一步获得适合全国的利用现代高新技术的森林可燃物分类方法打下了坚实基础。     

The collection 5 MODIS burned area product — Global evaluation by comparison with the MODIS active fire product

The results of the first consecutive 12 months of the NASA Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) global burned area product are presented. Total annual and monthly area burned statistics and missing data statistics are reported at global and continental scale and with respect to different land cover classes. Globally the total area burned labeled by the MODIS burned area product is 3.66 × 10⁶ km² for July 2001 to June 2002 while the MODIS active fire product detected for the same period a total of 2.78 × 10⁶ km², i.e., 24% less than the area labeled by the burned area product. A spatio-temporal correlation analysis of the two MODIS fire products stratified globally for pre-fire leaf area index (LAI) and percent tree cover ranges indicate that for low percent tree cover and LAI, the MODIS burned area product defines a greater proportion of the landscape as burned than the active fire product; and with increasing tree cover (> 60%) and LAI (> 5) the MODIS active fire product defines a relatively greater proportion. This pattern is generally observed in product comparisons stratified with respect to land cover. Globally, the burned area product reports a smaller amount of area burned than the active fire product in croplands and evergreen forest and deciduous needleleaf forest classes, comparable areas for mixed and deciduous broadleaf forest classes, and a greater amount of area burned for the non-forest classes. The reasons for these product differences are discussed in terms of environmental spatio-temporal fire characteristics and remote sensing factors, and highlight the planning needs for MODIS burned area product validation.     

Comparison of burnt area estimates derived from satellite products and national statistics in Europe

Burnt area maps based on satellite observations are frequently used in calculations related to fire regime, such as those of carbon dioxide emissions. Nevertheless, burnt area estimates between products vary widely, and validation against independent data is scarce, especially for Europe. Here we compare two active fire maps (the ATSR World Fire Atlas and the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Active Fire Product) and two fire scars maps (the L3JRC and the MODIS Burned Area Product) to independent national statistics taken from 22 European countries between 1997 and 2008. We also tested the coincidence between satellite products derived by calculation of the fraction of active fires that were confirmed by a subsequent drop in reflectance. As a large proportion of fire pixels (between 40% and 66%, depending on the product) is located on urban land or crop fields, filtering out fires located on these land uses greatly improves the agreement between satellite-based burnt area estimates and national statistics and it also improves the coincidence between satellite products. The MODIS Active Fire Product appears to be most suitable for use as a proxy for burnt area patterns, showing a high correlation to national statistics (R² = 0.9), relatively low spatial and temporal heterogeneity and only a slight underestimation of the total burnt area (19 000 ha year^–1). Unfiltered products show cases of substantial wildfire overestimation in all products, mainly attributable to anthropogenic activity, in the case of active fire products, and drought-induced vegetation dieback, in that of fire scar maps. Thus, filtering out fires on anthropogenic land uses seems to be essential when analysing patterns of forest fires from satellite observations. However, if agricultural fires are to be included, a combination of MODIS Active Fire and MODIS Burned Area products is recommended. We obtained that such combination shows low temporal and spatial heterogeneity and the highest coincidence between satellite products (25%), although the correlation to national statistics is not very high (R² = 0.67) and clearly underestimates the total burnt area (187 000 ha year^–1).     

Comparisons of land cover and LAI estimates derived from ETM+ and MODIS for four sites in North America: a quality assessment of 2000/2001 provisional MODIS products

The MODIS land science team produces a number of standard products, including land cover and leaf area index (LAI). Critical to the success of MODIS and other sensor products is an independent evaluation of product quality. In that context, we describe a study using field data and Landsat ETM+ to map land cover and LAI at four 49-km² sites in North America containing agricultural cropland (AGRO), prairie grassland (KONZ), boreal needleleaf forest, and temperate mixed forest. The purpose was to: (1) develop accurate maps of land cover, based on the MODIS IGBP (International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme) land cover classification scheme; (2) derive continuous surfaces of LAI that capture the mean and variability of the LAI field measurements; and (3) conduct initial MODIS validation exercises to assess the quality of early (i.e., provisional) MODIS products. ETM+ land cover maps varied in overall accuracy from 81% to 95%. The boreal forest was the most spatially complex, had the greatest number of classes, and the lowest accuracy. The intensive agricultural cropland had the simplest spatial structure, the least number of classes, and the highest overall accuracy. At each site, mapped LAI patterns generally followed patterns of land cover across the site. Predicted versus observed LAI indicated a high degree of correspondence between field-based measures and ETM+ predictions of LAI. Direct comparisons of ETM+ land cover maps with Collection 3 MODIS cover maps revealed several important distinctions and similarities. One obvious difference was associated with image/map resolution. ETM+ captured much of the spatial complexity of land cover at the sites. In contrast, the relatively coarse resolution of MODIS did not allow for that level of spatial detail. Over the extent of all sites, the greatest difference was an overprediction by MODIS of evergreen needleleaf forest cover at the boreal forest site, which consisted largely of open shrubland, woody savanna, and savanna. At the agricultural, temperate mixed forest, and prairie grassland sites, ETM+ and MODIS cover estimates were similar. Collection 3 MODIS-based LAI estimates were considerably higher (up to 4 m² m⁻²) than those based on ETM+ LAI at each site. There are numerous probable reasons for this, the most important being the algorithms' sensitivity to MODIS reflectance calibration, its use of a prelaunch AVHRR-based land cover map, and its apparent reliance on mainly red and near-IR reflectance. Samples of Collection 4 LAI products were examined and found to consist of significantly improved LAI predictions for KONZ, and to some extent for AGRO, but not for the other two sites. In this study, we demonstrate that MODIS reflectance data are highly correlated with LAI across three study sites, with relationships increasing in strength from 500 to 1000 m spatial resolution, when shortwave-infrared bands are included.     

Using AHS hyper-spectral images to study forest vegetation recovery after a fire

Recent advances in sensor technology have led to the development of new hyper-spectral instruments capable of measuring reflected radiation over a wide range of wavelengths. These instruments can be used to assess the diverse characteristics of vegetation recovery that are only noticeable in certain parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. In this research, such instruments were used to study vegetation recovery following a forest fire in a Mediterranean ecosystem. The specific event occurred in an area called El Rodenal of Guadalajara (in Central Spain) between 16 and 21 July 2005. Remotely sensed hyper-spectral multitemporal data were used to assess the forest vegetation response following the fire. These data were also combined with remotely sensed fire severity data and satellite high temporal resolution data. Four Airborne Hyperspectral Scanner (AHS) hyper-spectral images, 361 Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) images, field data, and ancillary information were used in the analysis. The total burned area was estimated to be 129.4 km². AHS-derived fire severity level-of-damage assessments were estimated using the normalized burn ratio (NBR). Post-fire vegetation recovery was assessed according to a spectral unmixing analysis of the AHS hyper-spectral images and the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), as calculated from the MODIS time series. Combining AHS hyper-spectral images with field data provides reliable estimates of burned areas and fire severity levels-of-damage. This combination can also be used to monitor post-fire vegetation recovery trends. MODIS time series were used to determine the types and rates of vegetation recovery after the fire and to support the AHS-based estimates. Data and maps derived using this method may be useful for locating priority intervention areas and planning forest restoration projects.     

Satellite‐derived 2003 wildfires in southern Siberia and their potential influence on carbon sequestration

The burned area, fuel type, crown fire percentage, and carbon release of the southern Siberia 2003 wildfire were analysed using AVHRR, MODIS, MERIS, ASTER images and a carbon release model. More than 200 000 km² were burned from 14 March to 8 August 2003, of which 71.4% was forest, 9.5% humid grassland, and 2.15% bogs or marshes. During 1996 to 2003, 32.2% of the forested area and 23.36% of the total area was burned, and 13.9% of the total area was affected by fire at least twice. Direct carbon emission from this 2003 fire was around 400640 Tg. The 2003 Siberian fires could well have contributed to the high increase of the atmospheric CO₂ and CO concentration in 2003. The increasing human pressure coupled with intensive fire severity, recurrent fire frequency, and increasing occurrence of summer droughts will reduce the carbon sequestration potential of this important carbon pool.     

Monitoring boreal forest leaf area index across a Siberian burn chronosequence: a MODIS validation study

Landscapes containing differing amounts of ecological disturbance provide an excellent opportunity to validate and better understand the emerging Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS) vegetation products. Four sites, including 1‐year post‐fire coniferous, 13‐year post‐fire deciduous, 24‐year post‐fire deciduous, and >100 year old post‐fire coniferous forests, were selected to serve as a post‐fire chronosequence in the central Siberian region of Krasnoyarsk (57.3°N, 91.6°E) with which to study the MODIS leaf area index (LAI) and vegetation index (VI) products. The collection 4 MODIS LAI product correctly represented the summer site phenologies, but significantly underestimated the LAI value of the >100 year old coniferous forest during the November to April time period. Landsat 7‐derived enhanced vegetation index (EVI) performed better than normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) to separate the deciduous and conifer forests, and both indices contained significant correlation with field‐derived LAI values at coniferous forest sites (r ² = 0.61 and r ² = 0.69, respectively). The reduced simple ratio (RSR) markedly improved LAI prediction from satellite measurements (r ² = 0.89) relative to NDVI and EVI. LAI estimates derived from ETM+ images were scaled up to evaluate the 1 km resolution MODIS LAI product; from this analysis MODIS LAI overestimated values in the low LAI deciduous forests (where LAI<5) and underestimated values in the high LAI conifer forests (where LAI>6). Our results indicate that further research on the MODIS LAI product is warranted to better understand and improve remote LAI quantification in disturbed forest landscapes over the course of the year.     

Fire and smoke observed from the Earth Observing System MODIS instrument--products,validation, and operational use

The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensor, launched on the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Terra satellite at the end of 1999, was designed with 36 spectral channels for a wide array of land, ocean, and atmospheric investigations. MODIS has a unique ability to observe fires, smoke, and burn scars globally. Its main fire detection channels saturate at high brightness temperatures: 500 K at 4 µm and 400 K at 11 µm, which can only be attained in rare circumstances at the 1 km fire detection spatial resolution. Thus, unlike other polar orbiting satellite sensors with similar thermal and spatial resolutions, but much lower saturation temperatures (e.g. Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer and Along Track Scanning Radiometer), MODIS can distinguish between low intensity ground surface fires and high intensity crown forest fires. Smoke column concentration over land is for the first time being derived from the MODIS solar channels, extending from 0.41 µm to 2.1 µm. The smoke product has been provisionally validated both globally and regionally over southern Africa and central and south America. Burn scars are observed from MODIS even in the presence of smoke, using the 1.2 to 2.1 µm channels. MODIS burned area information is used to estimate pyrogenic emissions. A wide range of these fire and related products and validation are demonstrated for the wild fires that occurred in northwestern USA in Summer 2000. The MODIS rapid response system and direct broadcast capability is being developed to enable users to obtain and generate data in near real-time. It is expected that health and land management organizations will use these systems for monitoring the occurrence of fires and the dispersion of smoke within two to six hours after data acquisition.     

Regionally adaptable dNBR-based algorithm for burned area mapping from MODIS data

Recent advances in instrument design have led to considerable improvements in wildfire mapping at regional and global scales. Global and regional active fire and burned area products are currently available from various satellite sensors. While only global products can provide consistent assessments of fire activity at the global, hemispherical or continental scales, the efficiency of their performance differs in various ecosystems. The available regional products are hard-coded to the specifics of a given ecosystem (e.g. boreal forest) and their mapping accuracy drops dramatically outside the intended area. We present a regionally adaptable semi-automated approach to mapping burned area using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data. This is a flexible remote sensing/GIS-based algorithm which allows for easy modification of algorithm parameterization to adapt it to the regional specifics of fire occurrence in the biome or region of interest. The algorithm is based on Normalized Burned Ratio differencing (dNBR) and therefore retains the variability of spectral response of the area affected by fire and has the potential to be used beyond binary burned/unburned mapping for the first-order characterization of fire impacts from remotely sensed data. The algorithm inputs the MODIS Surface Reflectance 8-Day Composite product (MOD09A1) and the MODIS Active Fire product (MOD14) and outputs yearly maps of burned area with dNBR values and beginning and ending dates of mapping as the attributive information. Comparison of this product with high resolution burn scar information from Landsat ETM+ imagery and fire perimeter data shows high levels of accuracy in reporting burned area across different ecosystems. We evaluated algorithm performance in boreal forests of Central Siberia, Mediterranean-type ecosystems of California, and sagebrush steppe of the Great Basin region of the US. In each ecosystem the MODIS burned area estimates were within 15% of the estimates produced by the high resolution base with the R² between 0.87 and 0.99. In addition, the spatial accuracy of large burn scars in the boreal forests of Central Siberia was also high with Kappa values ranging between 0.76 and 0.79.     

Fire-induced changes in green-up and leaf maturity of the Canadian boreal forest

Recent studies of vegetation phenology of northern forests using satellite data suggest that the observed earlier spring increase and peak amplitude of the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) are a result of climate warming. In addition to undergoing an increase in temperature, the northern forests of Canada have also seen a dramatic increase in area burned by wildfire over the same time period. Using the Canadian Large Fire Database, we analyzed the impact fire had on the phenological dates derived from fitting a logistical model to yearly data from 2004 for several different subsets of both AVHRR-NDVI and MODIS LAI in wildfire dominated terrestrial ecozones. Fire had a significant but complex effect on estimated phenology dates. The most recently burned areas (1994–2003) had later green-up dates in two ecozones for AVHRR data and all ecozones for MODIS. However, older forested (not burned during 1980–2003) had estimated green-up dates 1 to 9 days earlier than the entire forested area in the MODIS LAI data. These data corroborate studies in Canada and demonstrate that fire history is influencing boreal forest phenology and growing season LAI.