Physico-chemical evaluation of products extruded with sorghum-corn-soybean blends

Yellow corn grits (M), brown sorghum (SM), white sorghum (SB) and full fat soy flour (S) blends were extruded in an autogenous Brady Crop Cooker extruder at 195-200 degrees C and 11% moisture content. Binary blends (70:30) made up of M:S, SM:S and SB:S; and ternary blends (30:40:30) made up of SM:M:S and SB:M:S were extruded. Under these conditions, extrudates contained about 19% protein and 6% fat, which are within the specifications given for cereal/oil seed blends. Raw and extruded samples were analyzed for ES, WQI, WSI, MD and paste viscosity. All blends underwent modifications in the starch fraction at granular and molecular level. Brown sorghum extrudates presented higher degradation than those of white sorghum and corn:soy blends, although the last ones gave similar responses to analitical techniques. Extrudates greatly increased their ES, SWI and MD values, suggesting that degradation products, like dextrins, were present. Cooked paste low viscosities (50 degrees C) and micrographs support these findings. Because of their functional characteristics, extrudates could be used in beverages.     

Soy and corn flour precooked with microwaves and its use in the preparation of arepas]

Unhusked corn and soy grits were used as raw material, with a particle size ranging between 10 and 20 mesh (ASTM). The results obtained in this study reveal that microwave heating is effective in destroying the antinutritional factors present in soybeans. The trypsin inhibitor activity, in effect, was reduced to a 76% inactivation. The hemagglutinating titer was labile to the heating process, showing values of +8 to +3 for the full-fat soy flour and precooked soy flour, respectively. The quality of soy protein was measured by the protein efficiency ratio (PER) showing values of 2.63 for the precooked soy flour, and 2.46 to 2.21 for the precooked corn:soy blends (70:30 and 50:50). These uncooked blends present values of 1.17 and 1.04. The enriched corn:soy flour had a PER value of 1.60, in comparison to casein (PER = 2.90). The microwave heating improved the digestibility of the soy flour and blends. There were no significant differences (P less than or equal to 0.05) in relation to the functionality of the precooked flour and mixtures. The results obtained revealed that the applied process markedly improve the functional properties and nutritional value of the enriched flour, and of the "arepas" prepared from them.     

Practical feeding programs using soy protein as base

The U.S. has furnished billions of lb food commodities containing soy protein for use in feeding programs in the less developed countries. As a result of the low cost, excellent nutritional qualities and functional versatility of soy products, they have been used extensively as protein additives in a broad spectrum of foods for practical feeding programs. Soy flours are a major ingredient in blended foods, such as instant corn soy milk, corn soy blend, and wheat soy blend; and soy flours and grits have been used as protein fortificants in wheat, corn, sorghum, and oat products distributed overseas. Most recently, a new whey soy drink mix has been developed for use in preschool feeding programs and now is being introduced around the world. As more attention focuses on the nutritional requirements of feeding program beneficiaries and on the need for low cost sources of protein, it can be expected that uses for soy protein will expand and additional soy based foods will be added to the list of commodities used in practical feeding programs. One of 13 papers presented in the symposium, “Soy Protein,” at the AOCS Spring Meeting, Mexico City, April 1974.     

Biodegradable soy protein–polyester blends by reactive extrusion process

Blends of soy protein concentrate and biodegradable polyester (Eastar Bio Copolyester, EPE) were prepared by using glycerol as a compatibilizing agent. Good miscibility was obtained only when the soy protein was initially combined with glycerol under high shear and at elevated temperatures in an extruder. Under these conditions, partial denaturing of the soy protein led to specific interactions between functional groups of the protein with the glycerol. The extrusion conditions and appropriate screw configuration were the critical factors affecting the reactivity of the protein and hence, the properties of the blends. Screws with large kneading blocks that produced high shear mixing were preferred and led to thermoplastic blends characterized by high elongation and high tensile strength. The morphology of these soy protein/polyester blends was studied by using environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) and indicated good wetting of the soy protein particles within the polyester matrix. The thermal properties were studied by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and showed a lower degree of crystallinity and a continuous depression of the melting point of the polyester as the concentration of protein was increased. The possibility of using soy protein concentrate instead of the more expensive (higher purity) soy protein isolate in the preparation of biodegradable resins should lead to new commercial opportunities based on renewable, agricultural byproducts. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 92: 3231–3239, 2004     

A new approach for morphology control of poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) and soy protein blends

In contrast to most studies in the literature where soy protein was used as a particulate filler in hydrophobic thermoplastic polymers, in this study, soy protein concentrate (SPC) was processed as a plastic to blend with poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT). By adjusting water content in the formulated SPC from low to high prior to compounding, SPC exhibited behaviors ranging from rigid filler to deformable filler to plastic during blending. Detailed phase morphology of the blends was revealed by transmission electron microscopy and field emission scanning electron microscopy. Evidences showed that SPC formed percolated thread structures when additional water was added to SPC prior to compounding. Study of dynamic rheology also confirmed the formation of interconnected network structure. Accordingly, tensile mechanical properties were greatly improved for those blends with percolated SPC thread structures. The molecular weight change of PBAT in blends and influence of processing on soy protein solubility were also examined.     

Effect of composition and molecular structure on the LC phase of PHB-PEN-PET ternary blend

Poly(p-hydroxybenzoic acid) (PHB)–poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) 8/2 thermotropic liquid crystalline copolyester, poly(ethylene 2,6-naphthalate) (PEN), and PET were mechanically blended to pursue the liquid crystalline (LC) phase of ternary blends. The torque values of blends with increasing PHB content abruptly decreased above 40 wt % of PHB content because the melt viscosity of ternary blends dropped. Glass transition temperature and melting temperature of blends increased with increasing PHB content. The tensile strength and initial modulus of blends were low at 10 and 20 wt % PHB. However, the blends containing above 30 wt % PHB were improved with increasing PHB content due to the formation of fibrous structure. The blend of 20 wt % PHB formed irregularly dispersed spherical domains, and the blends of 30–40 wt % PHB showed LCP ellipsoidal domains and fibrils. In the polarized optical photographs, the blends of 40 wt % PHB showed pseudo LC phases. The degree of transesterification and randomness of blends were increased with blending time. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 70: 1065–1073, 1998     

Characterization of cocoa butter substitutes,milk fat and cocoa butter mixtures

The melting properties and polymorphic behavior of binary and ternary blends of cocoa butter substitutes (CBS), cocoa butter (CB), and milk fat (MF) were studied by using pulsed nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and X‐ray diffractometry (XRD). Hydrogenated palm kernel stearin (HPKS) and hydrogenated palm kernel olein (HPKO) were chosen as the two CBS feedstock fats. Both CBS/CB binary blends displayed significant eutectic behaviors. Multiple melting peaks and eutectic effects were observed at 30–50% addition levels of CB to HPKS. The range was broader in HPKO/CB blends. Dilution effect was observed in both CBS/MF blends while slight monotectic effect was also observed in HPKO/MF blends. Ternary phase diagrams and melting curves showed that eutectic effects existed in both ternary blends and the degree of interaction depended on the content of CB and MF. XRD results showed that when pure fat component in each blend exceeded 80%, its polymorphism dominated in the ternary blends. However, when CBS/CB or MF /CB were added at a comparative content (blends D and F), both β and β′ form existed. Practical applications: Phase properties of fat blends may have significant effects on the sensory characteristics and physical properties of the final products, such as hardness, brittleness, and the bloom formation. This study evaluates the melting properties and the polymorphic characteristics of fat blends of constituents with potential use in the manufacture of confectionery products. A comprehensive analysis of binary and ternary fat blends was conducted in order to provide a guide for compound chocolate production formulation.     

Frying Stability of Canola Oil Blended with Palm Olein, Olive, and Corn Oils

The fatty acid composition, peroxide value (PV), acid value (AV), iodine value (IV), total tocopherols (TT) content, and total phenolics (TP) content of canola oil (CAO), palm olein oil (POO), olive oil (OLO), corn oil (COO), and the binary and ternary blends of the CAO with the POO, OLO, and COO were determined. The blends were prepared in the volume ratios of 75:25 (CAO/POO, CAO/OLO, CAO/COO) and 75:15:10 (CAO/POO/OLO, CAO/POO/COO). The CAO and its blends were used to fry potato pieces (7.0 × 0.5 × 0.3 cm) at 180 °C. During the frying process, the total polar compounds (TPC) content, AV, oil/oxidative stability index (OSI), and color index (CI) of the CAO/blends were measured. In general, frying stability of the CAO was significantly (P < 0.05) improved by the blending, and the frying performance of the ternary blends was found to be better than that of the binary blends.     

Effects of lignin as a filler on properties of soy protein plastics. I. Lignosulfonate

A series of biodegradable plastics from soy protein isolate (SPI) and lignosulfonate (LS) with a weight ratio of 0:10 to 6:4 were prepared with 40 wt % glycerol as a plasticizer by compression molding. Their properties were investigated by wide‐angle X‐ray diffraction (WAXD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), dynamical mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and tensile tests. The results indicated that the introduction of a moderate LS content from 30 to 40 parts in the blends could simultaneously enhance the tensile strength, elongation, and Young's modulus of soy protein plastics alone. Studies of the water sensitivity of the materials suggested that the strong interaction between LS and SPI could restrict the effect of water on the swelling and the damage of the materials, resulting in lower water absorption. The improvement of the properties was attributed mainly to the existence of the beneficial microphase separation and the formation of crosslinked structures because of the introduction of LS into soy protein plastics. Therefore, a model of a crosslinked network formed from SPI molecules with an LS center was established based on the existence of strong physical interactions between LS and SPI. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 88: 3284–3290, 2003     

Photodegradation of thermodegraded polypropylene/high‐impact polystyrene blends: Mechanical properties

The influence of the addition of high‐impact polystyrene (HIPS) on polypropylene (PP) photodegradation was studied with blends obtained by extrusion with and without styrene–butadiene–styrene (SBS) copolymer (10 wt % with respect to the dispersed phase). The concentrations of HIPS ranged from 10 to 30 wt %. The blends and pure materials were exposed for periods of up to 15 weeks of UV irradiation; their mechanical properties (tensile and impact), fracture surface, and melt flow indices were monitored. After 3 weeks of UV exposure, all of the materials presented mechanical properties of the same order of magnitude. However, for times of exposure greater than 3 weeks, an increasing concentration of HIPS resulted in a better photostability of PP. These results were explained in light of morphological observations. This increase of photostability was even greater when SBS was added to the blends. It was more difficult to measure the melt flow index of the binary PP/HIPS blends than that of PP for low concentrations of HIPS; this was most likely due to energy transfer between the blend domains during photodegradation. This phenomenon was not observed for the ternary blends. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2011     

三元共聚尼龙/聚氯乙烯/丁腈橡胶三元共混弹性体研究

选择三元共聚尼龙（PA），聚氯乙烯（PVC）和丁腈橡胶（NBR）为主体材料，采用高温机械共混，化学交联工艺制得了PA／PVC／NBR三元共混弹性体，探讨了PA／NBR，POM／NBR，PVC／NBR，HMWPVC／NBR三元共混体系性能，重点讨论了PA／PVC／NBR共混比，不同硫化体系，有机过氧物DCP用量等因素对PA／PVC／NBR三元共混弹性体性能的影响，实验结果表明：选择适宜配方制得力学性能和耐油耐溶剂性能较好的PA／PVC／NBR三元共混弹性体，扫描电镜的实验结果证实m(PA):m(PVC):m(NBR)=10:30:60和m(PA):m(PVC):m(NBR)=30:10:60两个体系的三元共混弹性体均具有较好的相容性，且前者的相容性更好。     

Morphology,thermomechanical properties,and biodegradability of low density polyethylene/starch blends

The biodegradability of low density polyethylene (LDPE)/starch and LDPE/starch/starch acetate (STAc) blends was tested and observed to be dependent on STAc content. The binary and ternary blends containing up to a maximum concentration of 30% starch were examined for their thermal, mechanical, and morphological properties. The blends with no STAc or 2.5% STAc show almost no adherence of two phases. With 10% STAc, dispersion of starch was observed to increase with some adherence to LDPE. Tensile strength, elongation at break, and Izod impact strength of the blends decreased with increased starch content. However, incorporation of STAc along with starch improved all these properties, particularly elongation at break and toughness. The melt flow index was also improved on partial substitution of starch by STAc. Maximum biodegradability was observed for the blends containing 30% (starch + STAc). Cell growth was observed to increase with increasing concentration of (starch + STAc) in the blends. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 74: 2791–2802, 1999     

Compatibilizers for recycling of the plastic mixture wastes. II. The effect of a compatibilizer for binary blends on the properties of ternary blends

In this article, we discuss the effect of a compatibilizer for binary blends on the properties of ternary blends composed of high‐density polyethylene (HDPE), polypropylene (PP), or polystyrene (PS) and poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) virgin polymers with a simulated waste plastics fraction. Chlorinated polyethylene (CPE), ethylene–propylene rubber (EPR), and their 1/1 (w/w) mixture were tested as compatibilizers for the HDPE/PP/PVC ternary blend. CPE, styrene‐ethylene‐propylene block copolymer (SEP), or their 1/1 (w/w) mixture were tested as compatibilizers for the HDPE/PS/PVC ternary blend. The composition of the ternary blends were fixed at 8/1/1 by weight ratio. The amount of the compatibilizer was 3 phr. Rheological, mechanical, and thermal properties were measured. For the 8/1/1 HDPE/PP/PVC ternary blends, the tensile strength was slightly decreased, but the impact strength was significantly increased by adding EPR, CPE, or their mixture. EPR exhibited the most significant impact modification effect for the ternary blends. In a similar way, for 8/1/1 HDPE/PS/PVC ternary blends, on adding SEP, CPE, or their mixture, the tensile strength was slightly decreased, but the impact strength was noticeably increased. It was found that the SEP worked much better as an impact modifier for the ternary blends than CPE or the SEP/CPE mixture did. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 76: 1048–1053, 2000     

Foaming and emulsifying properties of soy protein isolate and hydrolysates in skin and hair care products

There is a growing market for formulating proteins into a wide variety of products including laundry detergents, bath products, shampoos, and skin cleansers. Soy protein isolate (SPI), soy protein hydrolysate A (SPHA) from papainmodified SPI, and hydrolysate B from papain- and proteasemodified SPI were used in blends with three major detergents, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), sodium laureth sulfate (SLS), and disodium lauryl sulfosuccinate (DSLSS). SPHA was used to partially replace these detergents in bath soap, conditioning shampoo, and cream hand cleanser. The effectiveness of SPI, SPHA, or SPHB blends with the three detergents and their influence in prototype products on foaming and emulsifying properties were investigated. At a blending ratio of 75% detergents and 25% proteins (75∶25), the foaming capacities (FC) were the same as detergents alone without adding proteins (100∶0); at 50∶50 blending ratio, FC values were not significantly reduced for blends with SDS and SLS; and at 25∶75 ratio the FC values were significantly lower, especially for blends with DSLSS. When replacing up to 100% of the major detergents in the skin and hair care products with SPHA, FC values remained almost unchanged except for hand cleanser FC values, which were lower at higher protein content (75 and 100%). In contrast with FC performance, emulsion stability (ES) values for all products increased with increasing soy protein content. Furthermore, FC and ES values for detergents blended with SPHA or SPHB were not significantly different from each other, but these values were always higher than those for detergents blended with SPI. Products in which soy protein or soy protein hydrolysates were used to partially replace detergents not only retained excellent foaming properties but also exhibited enhanced emulsifying properties. These results indicate that modified soy proteins may be used in laundry and cosmetic products to fulfill market demand.     

Study on in situ reinforcing and toughening of a semiflexible thermotropic copolyesteramide in PBT/PA66 blends

Ternary in situ composites based on poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT), polyamide 66 (PA66), and semixflexible liquid crystalline polymer (LCP) were systematically investigated. The LCP used was an ABA30/PET liquid crystalline copolyesteramide based on 30 mol % of p‐aminobenzoic acid (ABA) and 70 mol % of poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET). The specimens for thermal and rheological measurements were prepared by batch mixing, while samples for mechanical tests were prepared by injection molding. The results showed that the melting temperatures of the PBT and PA66 phases tend to decrease with increasing LCP addition. They also shifted toward each other due to the compatibilization of the LCP. The torque measurements showed that the ternary blends exhibited an apparent maximum near 2.5–5 wt % LCP. Thereafter, the viscosity of the blends decreased dramatically at higher LCP concentrations. Furthermore, the torque curves versus the PA66 composition showed that the binary PBT/PA66 blends can be classified as negative deviation blends (NDBs). The PBT/PA66/LCP blends containing up to 15 wt % LCP were termed as positive deviation blends (PDBs), while the blends with the LCP ≥25 wt % exhibited an NDB behavior. Finally, the tensile tests showed that the stiffness and tensile strength of ternary in situ composites were generally improved with increasing LCP content. The impact strength of ternary composites initially increased by the LCP addition, then deteriorated when the LCP content was higher than 10 wt %. The correlation between the mechanical properties and morphology of the blends is discussed. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 77: 1975–1988, 2000     

Binary and ternary blends of recycled high‐density polyethylene containing polypropylenes

Binary and ternary blends of the high viscosity recycled high‐density polyethylene (reHDPE) from milk bottles, containing either homopolymer polypropylene (PP) or copolymer polypropylene (coPP), were developed in an effort to reduce viscosity and encourage ease of processing by injection molding, without a significant loss in mechanical properties. A grade of PP and a grade of coPP that had crystallization temperatures close to and slightly lower than that of reHDPE were chosen for blending in order to obtain simultaneous crystallization of the reHDPE and (co)PP phases. The resulting reHDPE/(co)PP blends (reHDPE wt% = 77) generally showed very good mechanical properties and, in particular, sufficiently high impact strength while engendering considerably lower viscosity than reHDPE. The PP was more useful at very high and low shear rates whereas the coPP was the most efficient in the mid‐range of shear rates (10² – 10³ sec^?1). Good impact resistance shown by the reHDPE/(co)PP blends was attributed in part to the fine dispersion of (co)PP phase, possible involvement of a portion of the polymers in a co‐continuous structure and simultaneous crystallization of the components. Ternary blends of reHDPE (reHDPE wt% = 77), PP and low‐density polyethylene (LDPE) showed good mechanical performance, although they were more viscous than (co)PP blends. In the ternary blends, co‐crystallization of reHDPE and LDPE phases was preserved (1).     

Development of a food of intermediate moistness from extracts of corn and soybean

Precooked cereal:oilseed blends have potential use as intermediate moisture food supplements. On this basis, some formulations from corn:soy extrudates, and other ingredients, were prepared and evaluated. The main objective of this work was to develop a prototype intermediate moisture vegetable food, stable at room temperature, of low cost, and inexpensive packaging requirements. The technological process involves thermal and enzymatic modification of corn and soy blends. The final product can be suspended in water and consumed as a high energy-protein beverage. Its proximate composition is similar to that of sweetened condensed milk.     

Morphology and properties of soy protein plastics modified with chitin

A series of bioplastics from isolated soy protein (SPI) and chitin (CH) was prepared with glycerol as a plasticizer by blending and compression molding. Their morphology and properties were investigated by wide‐angle X‐ray diffraction (WAXD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), dynamical mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and tensile and water‐absorption tests. The added CH as a filler cannot strongly interact with SPI molecules and, hence, this results in phase separation in blends. However, the rigid nature of the CH molecules enhanced the tensile strength and Young's modulus, but decreased the breaking elongation of the materials. When the CH content was higher than 10 wt %, the water absorption of the blends were obviously lower than that of the sheets without CH, resulting from the formation of a CH framework in the blends. Both soy protein and CH exhibit good biodegradability, biocompatibility, and bioactivity, and their composites may become a promising biomaterial. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 90: 3676–3682, 2003     

Preparation of PBT/POE-g-GMA/PP ternary blends with good rigidity–toughness balance by core–shell particles

Compared with poly(butylene terephthalate)/glycidyl methacrylate grafted poly(ethylene–octene) (PBT/POE-g-GMA) binary blends, supertough PBT-based ternary blends with little rigidity loss were successfully obtained by adding rigid polypropylene (PP) into PBT/POE-g-GMA blends to construct core–shell particles during melt blending. The effects of PP content and type on the phase morphology and mechanical properties of the blends were systematically investigated. Theoretical predictions and scanning electron microscopy observation showed that a core–shell structure was formed in PBT matrix with PP as the core and POE-g-GMA as the shell. The mechanical property tests showed that POE-g-GMA and PP had significant synergistic toughening effect. When PP with high melt flow index (H-PP) was used, PBT/POE-g-GMA/H-PP (70/15/15) blends possessed the highest Izod notched impact strength, which was 1.9-fold compared with PBT/POE-g-GMA (70/30) binary blends, while the tensile performance loss was little. The essential work of fracture tests was performed to evaluate the fracture resistance of different samples. The results demonstrated that PBT/POE-g-GMA/PP ternary blends possessed much better resistance to crack propagation than PBT/POE-g-GMA binary blends. The decrease of interparticle distance and the fibrillation of core–shell particles activated intense matrix shear yielding, which was the reason for the high crack resistance of ternary blends. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2020 , 137, 48872.