Icons improve older and younger adults' comprehension of medication information

We examined whether timeline icons improved older and younger adults' comprehension of medication information. In Experiment 1, comprehension of instructions with the icon (icon/text format) and without the icon (text-only format) was assessed by questions about information that was (a) implicit in the text but depicted explicitly by the icon (total dose in a 24 hour period), (b) stated and depicted in the icon/text condition (medication dose and times), and (c) stated but not depicted by the icon (e.g., side effects). In a separate task, participants also recalled medication instructions (with or without the icon) after a study period. We found that questions about dose and time information were answered more quickly and accurately when the icon was present in the instructions. Notably, icon benefits were greater for information that was implicit rather than stated in the text. This finding suggests that icons can improve older and younger adults' comprehension by reducing the need to draw some inferences. The icon also reduced effective study time (study time per item recalled). In Experiment 2, icon benefits did not occur for a less integrated version of the timeline icon that, like the text, required participants to integrate dose and time information in order to identify the total daily dose. The integrated version of the icon again improved comprehension, as in Experiment 1, as well as drawing inferences from memory. These findings show that integrated timeline icons improved comprehension primarily by aiding the integration of dose and time information. These findings are discussed in terms of a situation model approach to comprehension.     

Aided recall and list-1 retention under conditions of retroactive interference.

Attempted to determine whether list 1 retention decrements resulting from retroactive inhibition (ri)-producing list 2 learning could be reduced with recall aids. 120 male and female undergraduates serving as ss were randomly assigned to groups of 20 each. In a typical ri design, experimental ss learned 2 8-item paired-associate lists conforming to an ab-ac relationship; control ss learned only a single list. 3 types of recall conditions were used for the unpaced list 1 retention test (stimulus terms were provided in all cases): (a) standard unaided test, (b) middle 3 letters of the 9-letter response words provided, (c) initial 3 letters of response terms provided. The latter 2 conditions (aided recall) reduced ri in that control-experimental differences were reliably less on these tests than on the standard unaided test. It appears that ri results, in part, from difficulties with the retrieval of information that is available in storage. 2 views of the manner in which retrieval problems in ri can be conceptualized are discussed. (french summary) (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Recall of Descriptive Information: The Roles of Presentation Format, Annotation Strategy, and Individual Differences

The benefits of using a comprehensive annotation strategy (employing underlining/circling, making connections, asking questions, and making comments) with knowledge maps (spatial/verbal arrays) and traditional, linear text to improve free recall scores for learners with individual differences in vocabulary and comprehension ability were examined. Types and frequencies of annotations generated were also examined for each stimulus format condition. Multiple regression analyses indicate that the frequency of use of two component annotation strategies, asking questions and making connections, were significant predictors of recall scores, while frequency of underlining/circling and generating elaborations failed to predict recall scores. Text users generated more underlining/circling, while knowledge map users generated more connections between ideas, suggesting that knowledge maps may facilitate the application of more productive annotation strategies. Also examined were the interrelationships between vocabulary ability, comprehension ability, and free recall scores. Copyright 1997Academic Press     

Integration and its effect on acquiring knowledge about competing scientific theories for text.

Successful learning from scientific text depends upon a learner's ability to integrate successively encountered ideas in the text. High school and university students read texts that presented competing theories for ongoing scientific problems (e.g., the gradualist vs. catastrophic theories of dinosaur extinction) under two conditions: an integrated-text format versus a separate-text format. The integrated-text format was designed to portray science as inquiry and offered each theory as a possible solution to the scientific problem. The separate text presented the two theories successively in separate texts and made no mention of their conflicting nature. In general, the integrated-text format tended to facilitate performance on tests that measured integration of ideas rather than memory for discrete facts. The study showed that successful learning is also affected by learner characteristics, such as the maturity of the learner's epistemic views about knowledge and the capacity of the learner's working memory. The results suggest that integration processes contribute significantly to students' abilities to gain a deep understanding of science from written texts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory for odors and odor names: Modalities of elaboration and imagery.

This study examined memory for common odors and odor names that were encoded with visual, verbal, and olfactory elaborations. In the first experiment, subjects elaborated olfactory stimuli by processing a picture of the odor's source, a name for the odor, or both. Two control groups were also included: One group was presented only with the odors, and another group was presented only with odor names. One week later, all subjects were given both a free recall test of odor names and an olfactory recognition test. In general, the elaboration groups outperformed the control groups, with the visual and verbal elaboration group demonstrating the best performance. In a second experiment, olfactory imaginal encoding of odor names was compared with visual imaginal encoding of the same names to measure the relative efficacy of same versus different modality encoding on later stimulus recognition. The results showed that olfactory imaginal encoding aided later recognition of odors, and visual imaginal encoding aided later picture recognition. It is suggested that different modalities contribute unique and mnemonically independent information to episodic memory performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of number signals on reading and recall.

Examined the influence of number signals (i.e., numbers or number words preceding important textual information) on text recall. 120 undergraduates read and recalled 2 texts containing 10 target sentences each. Reading times were recorded for each target sentence. For half of the Ss, the target sentences were preceded by numbers indicating their organization; for the other half, the target sentences were not signaled. Half of the Ss completed a free-recall task, while the remainder completed a cued-recall task. Results indicate that Ss read target sentences more slowly if they were signaled than if they were unsignaled. Ss' recalls of target information followed the text organization more closely if the sentences were signaled. Signaling aided free recall of target sentences, but had no effect on cued recall. Results demonstrate that number signals directed attention to the sentences they marked, led to better encoding of the organization of target information, and influenced the process of recalling the target information. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Outline and hierarchical organization as aids for study and retrieval.

120 undergraduates read a textual passage encompassing hierarchically related topics. A structural outline presented in advance of reading the text facilitated reproductive recall of facts. The structured sequence of paragraphs and structural outline during retrieval enhanced the generation of productive responses defined as reasonable elaborations and inferences of the text. The recall of specific facts was superior to that of general facts, implying an experimental demand to be precise in learning and recalling specific factual material. The interpretation of the influence of organizational aids embraces a view of comprehension which holds that old and new information interact to stimulate legitimate new productions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Auditory deprivation and recovery in adults with asymmetric sensorineural hearing impairment

The purpose of this investigation was to investigate (1) whether auditory deprivation effects are present in the poorer ears of adults with asymmetric sensorineural hearing impairment and (2) whether, if such effects are present, they can be reversed by amplification. Subjects were 16 males with asymmetric sensorineural hearing impairment, 8 of whom had never been aided, 6 of whom were aided monaurally at the initial test, and 2 of whom were unaided at the initial test but aided monaurally later on. Data were obtained from a retrospective review of records. The initial and retest (2-13 years post initial test) suprathreshold speech-recognition scores for 50-word, taped lists of the CID W-22 PB words were analyzed. The results revealed a significant difference between the initial and retest mean suprathreshold speech-recognition scores for the poorer ears of the unaided subjects. The results also revealed no significant change from the initial test to retest in six of the aided ears and significant improvement from the initial test to retest in the two of the aided ears. The findings are discussed with reference to the theory of auditory deprivation and recovery from auditory deprivation by amplification.     

Learner-generated organizational aids: Effects on learning from text.

Compared the effects on learning from text of 4 contexts (topic sentences, headings, related sentences, and unrelated sentences) when they were generated by readers or provided in text. 133 female undergraduates read a 522-word passage based on 15 related topics within a conceptual hierarchy on minerals, and performance under each of the treatments was examined on a free recall test, matching test, and test for knowledge of passage structure. The contexts had differential effects on knowledge of passage structure only when they were generated; readers who generated topic sentences recalled more than all other learners. The provided contexts had no effect on knowledge of passage structure but increased recall of subordinate information over generated contexts. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of self-selected study methods on learning.

Investigated whether the noting of ideas in a text (by underlining, highlighting, or taking notes) is a mediating variable between importance and the learning of those ideas. Three other variables that may affect the process and product of studying were also examined: ability, prior knowledge of the task and text provided by means of prereading main idea questions, and periodic retrospective probe questions asked of subjects during the studying process. Results indicate that noting information has little effect, independent of importance, on the recall of that information. In addition, prereading questions were found to reduce the amount of unimportant information subjects in all ability groups noted; they also improved the recall of important information for the lower ability group. Asking subjects to describe their strategies while studying reduced the amount of information they noted and had some effect on recall. Results were interpreted to mean that providing students with information about the task and text is most beneficial for lower ability students, that verbal reporting during reading affects both the process and product of studying, and that effective studying involves far more than simply underlining or note taking. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of communication aids and strategies on cooperative teaching.

The purpose of this study was to extend the research on the use of communication aids (types of visual aids used by persons to communicate information to one another) and strategies for using communication aids during cooperative teaching. College students were the participants. One half studied a knowledge map (a multirelational semantic map that displays partial distributions of verbal information), and one half studied a text. Within each half, one-third used a communication aid and were given a strategy, one-third used a communication aid without a strategy, and one-third did not use a communication aid and were given no strategy. Among the results, Ss interacting with a knowledge map were found to perform better than Ss using a text, and Ss who were given a strategy performed better than those who were not given a strategy. The theoretical and pragmatic implications of the results are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of structural schema training and text organization on expository prose processing.

Two experiments, with 157 undergraduates, assessed the effects of structural schema training and text organization on the comprehension and recall of scientific prose. As a preliminary step, a structural schema specifying the categories of knowledge important to understanding a scientific theory was developed. This schema was subsequently used as a prose processing aid in the 2 experiments. Results indicate that training Ss in the use of this schema significantly facilitated recall of scientific text. It was found in the 2nd experiment that organizing the presentation sequence of the major concepts of a passage according to this structural schema significantly improved subsequent recall for main ideas on free- and cued-recall measures in comparison to an alternative presentation sequence. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of prolonged lack of amplification on speech-recognition performance: preliminary findings

The purposes of this investigation were two-fold: 1) to prospectively investigate the effect of prolonged lack of binaural amplification in the unaided ears of adults with bilaterally symmetrical sensorineural hearing impairment (BSSHI) fitted monaurally; and, 2) to prospectively investigate the effects of amplification on speech-recognition performance in the aided ears of monaurally and binaurally fitted subjects. Subjects consisted of 19 monaurally aided adults, 28 binaurally aided adults, and 19 control adults. Both ears of the experimental subjects (binaurally and monaurally aided adults) had BSSHI. The speech measures included the W-22 CID suprathreshold speech-recognition test, nonsense syllable test, and speech-perception-in-noise test. Initial testing was done between 6 and 12 weeks following hearing-aid fitting. Retests were performed approximately 1 year following the initial test. The results revealed that the mean aided minus unaided ear score for the nonsense syllable and W-22 tests increased significantly from the initial test to retest, reflecting a slight improvement in speech performance in the aided ear and a slightly greater decrement in the unaided ear. The findings were interpreted with respect to the theories of auditory deprivation and acclimatization.     

Control of prose processing via instructional and typographical cues.

176 undergraduates studied an informative text about an imaginary solar system. Two cuing systems, 1 instructional and 1 typographical, were manipulated to induce a single or double set of cues consistent with 1 or 2 sets of text propositions, respectively, or no cues, a treatment in which target propositions were unspecified. The main findings are that (a) a single set of cues elevated recall of cue-related propositions at the expense of cue-unrelated propositions; (b) the presence of 2 sets of conflicting cues attenuated recall of target information; (c) in the absence of cues, recall was best for propositions that were designated as important by the learners; and (d) recall was enhanced when propositions were located in neighborhoods of topically related information. These findings support the notion that cuing systems guide the construction and implementation of learners' prose-processing decision criteria. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of display, response, and response set factors upon the storage of spatial information in complex displays.

Immediate recall for spatial information was studied as a function of stimulus load under 2 display formats, 2 response formats, and 2 response set conditions. 4 groups of 10 Ss each served under 15 replications of all response-format, stimulus-load conditions; groups were distinguished on the basis of display format and set. Each S viewed either a spatial or tabular display of 14-26 geometrical stimuli for 16 sec.; he was then required to report, on either a tabular or spatial response form, the location of relevant stimuli. Correct responses and misplacement errors increased more rapidly for the spatial format as more stimuli were presented. Recoding from 1 display to the other response format did not yield serious decrements. Contrary to expectation, response set enhanced all conditions to a nearly equivalent degree. Results are interpreted in terms of the "chunking" hypothesis. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Construction of Mental Maps Based on a Fragmentary View of Physical Maps.

Participants acquired spatial knowledge of a fictitious island by studying either (a) a complete physical map, (b) a sequence of part maps each showing the outline of the island and a subset of the landmarks, or (c) a sequence of sentences each describing a part map. During test, they verified the direction between 2 landmarks. Spatial knowledge in the fragment condition was as high as in the complete map condition, and both were better than the text group. Response times showed a distance effect. Additionally, spatial relations really presented were judged faster than inferred relations. The author replicated these results in a condition in which only relative spatial information could be used. These results suggest that simultaneity is not critical for obtaining a map advantage in spatial learning and that the mental representation of the map is structured. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Feeling-of-knowing in fact retrieval: further evidence for preservation in early Alzheimer's disease

The ability to retrieve and monitor factual information varying in datedness (i.e., dated vs. contemporary) was examined in healthy older adults and patients in an early phase of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Subjects were given free recall and multiple-choice recognition tests of 48 general knowledge questions. For all questions not responded to in recall, subjects made feeling-of-knowing (FOK) judgments. Results indicated dementia-related deficits in both recall and recognition, although both groups showed better recall and recognition with the dated compared with the contemporary questions. Importantly, despite deficits in fact retrieval, the AD patients showed intact monitoring of stored knowledge, as indicated by equivalent FOK accuracy for both groups. In addition, FOK accuracy was similar for the dated and the contemporary information in both groups, suggesting independence between level of general knowledge and the ability to supervise information stored in memory.