Study on air entrainment coefficient of one-dimensional horizontal movement stage of tunnel fire smoke in top central exhaust

When tunnel fire smoke is exhausted using a top central exhausting system, the air entrainment at the smoke-air interface has a significant effect on the overall mass flux. Using theoretical analysis, the air entrainment coefficient in one-dimensional horizontal smoke movement stage in central exhausting was obtained. Both heat release rate and smoke extraction rate have effects on the horizontal entrainment coefficient. The experimental results show that the entrainment coefficient in central exhausting is between 0.01 and 0.03 and the horizontal entrainment coefficient increases to 0.0181 with increasing heat release rate and becomes relatively stable afterwards. The entrainment coefficient increases with the smoke extraction rate increasing as the smoke extraction process will enhance the smoke momentum in the tunnel.     

隧道列车火灾的顶棚射流平均温度分布

列车着火并停留在隧道内时,容易产生夹带火焰的顶棚射流.通过建立列车中部着火时火焰顶棚射流的一维单元控制体模型,考虑火焰烟气与隧道壁面和列车壁面之间的换热,导出列车火灾火焰顶棚射流平均温度的迭代计算公式.并通过隧道列车火灾的1:8缩尺模型实验和数值模拟计算,确定了迭代公式中的待定系数.由该公式经过迭代运算后得到的平均温度...     

Unsteady ceiling jet model for large building spaces

This study describes a method for predicting the performance of a ceiling jet in large building spaces. For applying this method to unsteady cases, the terms of the time differential used in the governing equations and the one-dimensional heat transfers to the ceiling are added to the Alpert′s theory. Moreover, some functions such as the friction force acting against the ceiling and the air entrainment rate are refined. In this method, the domains are divided into multiple control volumes by vertical concentric circular boundaries whose center axis is positioned on the fire source. The profile of the ceiling jet is assumed to be Gaussian, and hence, the average velocities, average gas temperatures, and height of the ceiling jet at each boundary are computed sequentially, considering the influence of the heat loss to the ceiling and the dilution by the air entrainment. In this study, the results of this prediction model are compared to Alpert′s and Heskestad′s practical correlations under steady conditions, and the basic performance of the model is confirmed. Then, the predictions of this model are compared with the measurements by performing a fire experiment in a large building space. The gas temperatures are slightly lower for the predicted results than for the measured data; however, the performance of the model is generally promising.     

公路隧道超长距离纵向排烟试验研究

为研究5 km以上公路隧道超长距离全射流纵向排烟可行性与有效性,依托全长6 015 m的羊鹿山隧道,在不利于排烟的左线隧道（单向下坡）内开展20 MW现场火灾全射流纵向排烟试验。试验期间自然风速为1.0~1.6 m/s,与通风排烟方向相反,表现为排烟阻力。研究表明：左洞内开启6组射流风机时,洞内沿程风速约为3.5 m/s,开启12~15组风机时,下坡隧道内沿程风速约为5.5~7.0 m/s;20 MW油盘火试验从点火开始到烟气全部排出洞外的时间约为30 min。根据现场火灾排烟试验,对于羊鹿山隧道,在保证人员安全的情况下,采用全射流纵向排烟是可行的。     

贴壁线性火源在综合管廊电缆舱中的火灾行为研究

在缩尺寸管廊模型中进行电缆火灾试验,在距离管廊底部15,45,75,105 cm处贴壁放置线性火源,研究贴壁线性火源在不同高度处的火灾行为.通过试验分析发现,与点火源不同,线性火源的热释放速率随着高度的增加而减小;对有效火焰高度进行修正,通过拟合得到有效火焰高度的预测式;对羽流区和射流区的横向温度分别进行分析,得到横向...     

Decrease of carbon dioxide concentration and entrainment of horizontally spreading ceiling jet

Knowledge about the mass flow rate of a ceiling jet in a large space is important for predicting smoke behavior, determining suitable smoke control equipment, and designing the operating conditions in the early stages of a fire. Here, full-scale ceiling jet tests with a flat unconfined ceiling were conducted. The mass flow rate of a ceiling jet spreading in the radial direction was estimated based on measurement of carbon dioxide concentration. The relation between the entrainment properties of the ceiling jet and radial distance was experimentally investigated. Empirical formulae representing the dependence of the carbon dioxide concentration decrease with radial distance was developed. The entrainment coefficient characteristic by ceiling jet was also described.     

隧道火灾过程的动态数值模拟

为了解某特长隧道发生火灾后,隧道内烟雾及温度的分布情况,利用地下工程火灾原理建立了计算隧道内空气温度、壁面温度及火灾烟雾浓度的火灾模型,并编制了动态仿真程序.对隧道内不同位置发生火灾时,隧道内空气温度、壁面温及火灾烟雾浓度随时间、空间的分布情况进行了模拟计算,给出了隧道内不同位置发生火灾时不发生烟气回流的通风控制要求,并分析了火灾时高温烟气对风机损坏的情况.     

基于FDS的公路隧道火灾可逆射流风机通风疏散研究

随着我国公路隧道从高速建设期转变为建设与管理并重期,可逆射流风机在隧道通风系统中得到广泛应用。为探究可逆射流风机在隧道火灾下通风运行方式对人员疏散的影响,依托广东山隧道,采用5,20 MW两种火源功率,研究不同射流风机运行方式下隧道中部区域烟气、温度、CO体积分数及能见度的变化特性。结果表明,自然风和射流风机的出口气流均会破坏烟气-空气分层结构。在隧道内部1 m/s纵向自然风的影响下,面对不同功率火源,射流风机运行模式与人员疏散方向应随之改变。     

Numerical comparison of performance between traditional and alternative jet fans in tiled tunnel in emergency ventilation

In this paper a computational study was carried out to evaluate the performance of longitudinal ventilation system equipped with an alternative jet fan with respect to traditional one in case of fire in tiled tunnel. The alternative jet fan is equipped with inclined silencers (pitch angle α = 6°) in order to reduce the Coanda effect and consequently shear stress on the tunnel ceiling. The fire was simulated setting heat flux on HGV surface. Computational fluid dynamic analysis was applied to simulate the ventilation in the unidirectional tunnel through κ–ɛ model. The comparison conducted in terms of total thrust required to prevent back-layering phenomena and numerical results were provided in terms of thrust of jet fan values, average velocity values and temperature profiles, for different tunnel slope values. Furthermore the authors have compared the critical velocity provided by CFD analysis with critical velocity provided in the literature.     

Experimental studies on fire-induced buoyant smoke temperature distribution along tunnel ceiling

Twelve tests were conducted to study the distribution of smoke temperature along the tunnel ceiling in the one-dimensional spreading phase, two tests in a large-scale tunnel and the other ten in full scale vehicular tunnels. The fire size and the height above the floor, the tunnel section geometry and longitudinal ventilation velocity varied in these tests. Experimental results showed that when the fire size was larger, the smoke temperature below the ceiling was higher, but it decayed faster while traveling down the tunnel. The longitudinal ventilation velocity seemed to take much influence on the smoke temperature decay speed downstream. A “barrier effect” was shown for the smoke temperature distribution of the upstream back layering. The smoke temperatures measured were higher upstream than downstream before the “barrier”, and were much lower and decreased faster along the tunnel ceiling after the “barrier”. The temperature and the traveling velocity of the upstream smoke flow decreased largely when the longitudinal ventilation velocity increased a bit. The dimensionless excess smoke temperature distributions along the tunnel ceiling in all tests fell into good exponential decay. But the decay speed along the tunnel seemed to be much larger in the large-scale tunnel than that in full-scale tunnels. The measured data on ceiling jet temperature decay along the tunnel was compared with predictions of Delichatsios's model, a model built based on small-scale tests, with hydraulic diameter introduced. Results showed that Delichatsisos’ model over estimated the decay speed of ceiling jet temperature for the downstream flow. However, good agreement was achieved between the measured data and the model predictions for the upstream back layering. All the experimental data presented in this paper can be further applied for verification of numerical models, bench-scale results and building new models on ceiling jet temperature distribution.     

Nonlinear eddy viscosity modeling and experimental study of jet spreading rates

Indoor airflow pattern is strongly influenced by turbulent shear and turbulent normal stresses that are responsible for entrainment effects and turbulence‐driven secondary motion. Therefore, an accurate prediction of room airflows requires reliable modeling of these turbulent quantities. The most widely used turbulence models include RANS‐based models that provide quick solutions but are known to fail in turbulent free shear and wall‐affected flows. In order to cope with this deficiency, this study presents a nonlinear k‐ε turbulence model and evaluates it along with linear k‐ε models for an indoor isothermal linear diffuser jet flow measured in two model rooms using PIV. The results show that the flow contains a free jet near the inlet region and a wall‐affected region downstream where the jet is pushed toward the ceiling by entrainment through the well‐known Coanda effect. The CFD results show that an accurate prediction of the entrainment process is very important and that the nonlinear eddy viscosity model is able to predict the turbulence‐driven secondary motions. Furthermore, turbulence models that are calibrated for high Reynolds free shear layer flows were not able to reproduce the measured velocity distributions, and it is suggested that the model constants of turbulence models should be adjusted before they are used for room airflow simulations.     

Numerical 3D simulation of a longitudinal ventilation system: Memorial Tunnel case

In this work, a numerical 3D simulation of a longitudinal ventilation system (LVS) is developed to analyze the fire behaviour inside a road tunnel. The numerical modelling reproduces the Memorial Tunnel, a two-lane, 853 m long road tunnel, used for experimental purposes. On this tunnel, 98 full-scale fire ventilation tests with different ventilation systems were conducted, constituting the first significant experimental approach to analyze fire incidents inside road tunnels. A total number of 24 reversible jet fans were installed in groups of three, nearly equally spaced over the length of the tunnel, and cantilevered from the ceiling of the tunnel.

The validation of a numerical model is developed in the present paper. For that purpose, the behaviour of the smoke generated during a fire incident inside a road tunnel is predicted and compared with previous experimental data collected in the Memorial Tunnel Project. The smoke evolution and the performance of the LVS is simulated with a commercial code, FLUENT, which allows 3D unsteady simulations of the Navier–Stokes equations for multispecies mixtures of gases. A sufficient mesh density was introduced for the spatial discretization in order to obtain accurate results in a reasonable CPU time. Hence, typical ratios between total number of cells and the overall tunnel length were employed in the modelling. As a result, good agreement was achieved in all the tested cases, defining an accurate methodology to predict the performance of a LVS in case of fire inside a tunnel.     

顶棚射流扩展火焰长度工程计算模型

运用FDS数值模拟方法,通过不同火源功率、不同火源直径和不同顶棚高度等19种火灾算例,分析了不同模拟工况下顶棚射流横向扩展火焰的发展情况.根据模拟结果,拟合得到顶棚射流横向扩展火焰半径的工程计算模型,并和前人得到的计算模型进行了比较.     

Modeling for predicting the temperature distribution of smoke during a fire in an underground road tunnel with vertical shafts

In this study, fire experiments using a 1:20 model-scale tunnel were conducted to investigate the performance of natural ventilation in an underground road tunnel with six vertical shafts. The experimental parameters were the heat release rate of a fire source and the height of the shafts, and nine experiments were conducted in total. Furthermore, simple models were developed for predicting the temperature distribution of the smoke flowing under the tunnel ceiling. The following results were obtained: (1) In the experiments, the form of the smoke exhausted from the shaft became plug-holing when the shaft height was 1.0H_t, and became boundary layer separation when the height was 0.24H_t. (2) The average efficiency of heat exhaust was 0.16 when the form was plug-holing, and was 0.12 when the form was boundary layer separation. (3) When the form was plug-holing, the ratio of entrainment of fresh air became almost constant regardless of Ri. On the other hand, when the form was boundary layer separation, the ratio of entrainment of fresh air was smaller than that under the condition of plug-holing. (4) The temperature distribution under the tunnel ceiling predicted by the models agreed with that measured by the fire experiments in all cases.     

Performance of the smoke extraction system for fires in the Busan–Geoje immersed tunnel

A new partial smoke extraction system for the Busan–Geoje immersed tunnel was investigated experimentally using simulated tunnel fires. The tests were performed in a 1:20-scale model tunnel with a smoke extraction duct between two traffic tubes. The fire corresponded to a 5-MW full-scale fire, based on Froude modeling. Isothermal and thermal experimental models were considered. The performance of the partial smoke extraction system was quantified under natural and longitudinal ventilation conditions. The results showed that the smoke extraction efficiency of the natural ventilation was 30% better than with longitudinal ventilation, because of smoke stratification in the tunnel. Additionally, the efficiency obtained from the thermal model was comparable to that from the isothermal model under both ventilation conditions. The results suggested that the use of a partial smoke extraction system without longitudinal ventilation improved the initial visibility during tunnel fires.     

相向射流与竖井作用下的隧道烟气分层稳定性研究

开展相似试验,研究相向射流与竖井协同作用下,公路隧道火灾烟气分层稳定性与火源功率、相向射流风速及测点位置之间的关联关系。试验设计了3组共50个工况,分析了不同工况下不同位置处的火灾烟气分层稳定性。试验结果表明：上下游风速差值越小,火灾烟气分层越稳定,上下游风速差值越大,火灾烟气层越紊乱。相向射流风速相同,火源功率对火灾烟气分层稳定性并无明显影响。由于热浮力、射流及竖井抽吸作用力之间的相互作用,不同位置处火灾烟气分层稳定性呈现出差异性。     

沉管隧道火灾热释放速率试验研究

为了深入分析沉管隧道火灾发展过程及其规模,以港珠澳沉管隧道为研究对象,建立足尺隧道火灾试验平台,配备试验测量系统,开展足尺隧道火灾试验。试验火源选用油池火、木垛火以及真实车辆,通过失重法和热辐射法相结合的方式确定火源规模,同时,探讨影响其火灾热释放速率的因素。试验结果表明:油池火更适宜作为火灾试验火源;通过不同油盘的组合能够模拟多种规模的火灾,试验中最大规模为40 MW左右;废弃小汽车火灾规模近似为5 MW,中巴车近似为15 MW。另外,影响火灾热释放速率的主要因素是燃烧面积、燃料类型、火源位置和纵向风速等。     

Illegal carriage of dangerous goods and their effects on tunnel safety

Consequent to a recent fire resulting from a truck carrying illegal diesel outside a tunnel in Hong Kong, people are quite concerned about the safety aspects of vehicular tunnels. That truck was an ordinary vehicle without appropriate protection against the possible accidental fires due to those liquid fuels. The safety impact on a vehicular tunnel of a fire in an unprotected truck carrying illegal diesel is studied in this paper. Empirical results on spill fires and cooling jet expressions were applied to assess the probable tunnel environment. The two-layer zone model CFAST was also used to verify the results. The smoke temperature in the tunnel within 100 m of the fire might be up to 300°C, and smoke would travel rapidly. It is recommended that a proper safety management scheme should be worked out by the tunnel management authority. If necessary, every truck of enclosed structure should be inspected before entering a vehicular tunnel longer than a specified length, say 230 m.     

Determination of the heat release rate inside operational road tunnels by comparison with CFD calculations

Usually, during a fire inside a tunnel, the average heat release rate (HRR) is estimated according to the type of vehicle. Frequently, the overall HRR is considered, however it is also necessary to know its time evolution to design real time systems, particularly ventilation, which respond to fire events or signals as fast as possible. Nowadays, there is not a well established and generally accepted procedure to know the power liberated at each instant of time inside an operational tunnel. That procedure could help in taking the correct actions to adapt the tunnel ventilation in order to diminish the effects of the fire and the smoke. This work shows a method to calculate the heat release rate using sensors that can be installed inside an operational road tunnel. Besides, the location of the fire could also be calculated accurately and quickly. To achieve the previous purposes, a stationary database that depends on HRR, its location, and the ventilation speed is calculated with CFD programs; the data are compared with temperatures measured by the sensors located inside the tunnel. The program used to generate the database is the simplified model UPMTUNNEL. The predictions of the model are compared with the results of calculations carried out using the general purpose code FLUENT, and with measurements done in a tunnel with a real fire, produced with a fuel tray.     

隧道火灾中火羽流特性的数值模拟

利用F luen t软件对隧道火灾中火羽流特性进行了模拟分析,研究了隧道坡度对火羽流的影响,与前人所进行的数值模拟进行了比较,为隧道火灾的研究提供了一种有效的研究手段,为进一步研究隧道火灾临界通风速度奠定了基础。