An engineering tool to calculate heat release rates of multiple objects in underground structures

Simple theoretical calculations of the overall heat release rate (HRR) of multiple objects have been carried out. The results were compared to fire experiments in a model tunnel using wood cribs placed at equal distances from each other. Three different methods are presented which are based on physical relations for fire spread between the wood cribs. The first method uses a critical heat flux as ignition criteria while the other two methods use an ignition temperature. The method using the critical heat flux as ignition criteria shows very good agreement with the corresponding experimental results used. The two methods using the ignition temperature as ignition criteria did not agree well with the corresponding experimental results. The prerequisites, that the methods should be kept relatively simple to be of practical use and that the burning objects should not necessarily have to be of uniform composition, were fulfilled.     

一起越野车起火案例的原因调查

通过对一起汽车火灾事故的调查与取证,根据当事人和发现人提供的信息了解事故的基本状况,如起火时间、起火点、事故和维修情况。根据现场勘验的车辆行驶路线、行驶环境等,对事故车辆燃烧痕迹特征、火灾蔓延发展、发动机舱机械故障的发现、鉴别等多方面信息进行了详细阐述,就此起汽车火灾原因认定的事实和依据作了充分说明,为类似火灾的调查提供参考。     

Wildland fire spot ignition by sparks and firebrands

Wildland and Wildland Urban Interface (WUI) fires are an important problem in many areas of the world and may have major consequences in terms of safety, air quality, and damage to buildings, infrastructure, and the ecosystem. It is expected that with climate changes the wildland fire and WUI fire problem will only intensify. The spot fire ignition of a wildland fire by hot (solid, molten or burning) metal fragments/sparks and firebrands (flaming or glowing embers) is an important fire ignition pathway by which wildfires, WUI fires, and fires in industrial settings are started and may propagate. There are numerous cases reported of wildfires started by hot metal particles from clashing power-lines, or generated by machines, grinding and welding. Once the wildfire or structural fire has been ignited and grows, it can spread rapidly through ember spotting, where pieces of burning material (e.g. branches, bark, building materials, etc.) are lofted by the plume of the fire and then transported forward by the wind landing where they can start spot fires downwind. The spot fire problem can be separated in several individual processes: the generation of the particles (metal or firebrand) and their thermochemical state; their flight by plume lofting and wind drag and the particle thermo-chemical change during the flight; the onset of ignition (smoldering or flaming) of the fuel after the particle lands on the fuel; and finally, the sustained ignition and burning of the combustible material. Here an attempt has been made to summarize the state of the art of the wildfire spotting problem by describing the distinct individual processes involved in the problem and by discussing their know-how status. Emphasis is given to those areas that the author is more familiar with, due to his work on the subject. By characterizing these distinct individual processes, it is possible to attain the required information to develop predictive, physics-base wildfire spotting models. Such spotting models, together with topographical maps and wind models, could be added to existing flame spread models to improve the predictive capabilities of landscape-scale wildland fire spread models. These enhanced wildland fire spread models would provide land managers and government agencies with better tools to prescribe preventive measures and fuels treatments before a fire, and allocate suppression resources and issue evacuation orders during a fire.     

不同影剧院座椅连排燃烧特性试验研究

利用10 MW大尺度量热计对不同影剧院座椅进行连排燃烧试验研究.建立座椅燃烧试验台,将15把影剧院座椅分3排台阶布置,通过对多人影剧院软质座椅排列在一起进行燃烧试验,提供燃烧产生的热释放速率、总热释放量、产烟速率、总产烟量相关特性信息.试验中,分别选取普通影剧院座椅与阻燃影剧院座椅分别进行连排燃烧试验,并将燃烧测试得到...     

The modeling of fire spread in buildings by Bayesian network

Fire spread modeling is very important to fire safety engineering and to insurance industries involved in fire risk–cost analysis of buildings. In this paper, the Bayesian network is introduced. The directed acyclic graph of a fire spread model is presented. When the fire ignition location is known, the fire spread model based on the Bayesian network from the compartment of fire origin to another compartment can be built, and the probability of fire spread can be calculated by making use of the joint probability distribution of the Bayesian network. A specific application for an office building is presented for a case without sprinkler and one with sprinkler installed.     

Assessment of the Use of Fire Dynamics Simulator in Performance-Based Design

This paper discusses a procedure for the use of fire modelling in the performance-based design environment to quantify design fires for commercial buildings. This procedure includes building surveys, medium-and full-scale experiments and computer modelling. In this study, a survey of commercial premises was conducted to determine fire loads and types of combustibles present in these buildings. Statistical data from the literature were analysed to determine the frequency of fires, ignition sources, and locations relevant to these premises. Based on the results of the survey and the statistical analyses a number of fuel packages were designed that represent fire loads and combustible materials in commercial buildings. The fuel packages were used to perform medium- and full-scale, post-flashover fire tests to collect data on heat release rates, compartment temperatures and production and concentration of toxic gases. Based on the experimental results, input data files for the computational model, Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS), were developed to simulate the burning characteristics of the fuel packages observed in the experiments. Comparative analysis between FDS model predictions and experimental data of HRR, carbon monoxide (CO), and carbon dioxide (CO₂), indicated that FDS model was able to predict the HRR, temperature profile in the burn room, and the total production of CO and CO₂ for medium- and large-scale experiments as well as real size stores.     

Spread and burning behavior of continuous spill fires

Spill fire experiments with continuous discharge on a fireproof glass sheet were conducted to improve the understanding of spill fire spread and burning. Ethanol was used as the fuel and the discharge rate was varied from 2.8 mL/s to 7.6 mL/s. Three ignition conditions were used in the experiments; no ignition, instantaneous ignition and delayed ignition. The spread rate, regression rate, penetrated thermal radiation and the temperature of the bottom glass were analyzed. The experiments clearly show the entire spread process for spill fires. Further, the regression rate of spill fires at the quasi-steady burning was lower than that of pool fires and the ratio of the spill fires’ regression rate to the pool fires’ regression rate was found to be approximately 0.89. With respect to the radiative penetration and the heat conduction between the fuel layer and the glass, a regression rate expression for spill fires was developed based on some modifications on existing expressions for pool fires. In addition, a complete phenomenological model for spill fires was developed by combining the characteristics of spread and burning. The model was verified by the experimental data and found to predict the spread process for spill fires with reasonable accuracy.     

材料性质对浸汽油固体着火及燃烧特性影响

以报纸、纸板和碎纸屑等常见固体可燃物为对象,考察汽油添加量对其引燃时间、火焰传播速率、火灾痕迹及烧损速率的影响,分析固体材料性质对浸油固体着火及燃烧特性的影响机理。结果表明:随着汽油含量增加,报纸和纸壳的引燃时间缩短,表面火焰传播速率加快,超过一定值后有闪火出现,烧损速率增加,而碎纸屑的火焰传播速率则随汽油含量的增加呈先增大后减小的趋势。浸油纸壳燃烧时能够明显地区分出汽油燃烧和纸壳炭化两个速率。     

轻型木结构建筑外墙火灾蔓延试验研究

搭建实体火灾试验平台,对窗口溢出火焰沿木骨架组合外墙竖向蔓延特性进行研究。根据不同的外墙饰面材料及构造设置3种典型的工况,分析火焰蔓延、炭化情况以及不同位置温度随时间的变化。结果表明,对于硅酸钙板作外饰面层且无空腔的构造,外墙火灾蔓延危险性最小;对于带空腔的水泥挂板构造,水泥挂板在火焰高温作用下出现变形和破裂,导致空腔后面OSB板被引燃,火焰和烟气沿空腔向上蔓延;对于带空腔的阻燃木挂板构造,外挂板在窗口火作用下经历了引燃、平缓燃烧、剧烈燃烧三个阶段,最终出现失控的火蔓延。对于带空腔的外墙构造,金属泛水条有助于减缓火灾的竖向蔓延。     

公路交通隧道火灾探测技术研究

通过油盘火试验和模拟研究隧道火灾探测技术.油盘火试验分汽车下着火和汽车后方着火,模拟分为发动机舱着火和乘客舱着火.只有闭路电视图像探测器和感烟探测器能探测到车辆下方火灾,线型光纤感温探测系统探测车辆后方火灾较快.探测系统对乘客舱火灾的响应时间比发动机舱火灾的响应时间长.以50 km/h行驶的移动车辆着火,所有探测器无响应.建议采用两种及以上技术进行探测.     

Investigation of the effect of tunnel ventilation on crib fires through small-scale experiments

This paper adopts a series of 1:20 scale tunnel experiments based on a series of large-scale tunnel experiments to study the influence of forced ventilation on fires. The small-scale tunnel has dimensions of 0.365 m (W)×0.26 m (H)×11.9 m (L). Cribs using a wood-based material provide the fuel source and forced ventilation velocities from 0.23 to 1.90 m/s are used. From the study of the measured heat release rate (HRR) and mass loss rate data it is found that the forced air velocity affects the fire spread rate and burning efficiency and further affects peak HRR values at different air velocities. A simple model to describe these influences is proposed. This model is used to reproduce the enhancement of peak HRR for cribs with different porosity factors noted by Ingason [1] and to assess the effects of using different length of cribs on peak HRR. The results from these analyses suggest that different porosity fuels result different involvement of burning surface area and result different changes in peak HRR. However, no significant difference to the enhancement on fire size is found when the burning surface area is similar. It is also found that the trend in the enhancement on fire size by using sufficiently long crib and available ventilation conditions matches the predictions of Carvel and Beard [2] for two-lane tunnel heavy goods vehicle fires.     

Full-Scale Fire Test of an Intercity Train Car

Fire development inside a train car is a topic that has not been studied extensively due to the complexity of the problem and the need for a real train car and the appropriate facilities to conduct these tests in a controlled environment. This paper presents detailed experimental data on fire development inside a real intercity train car. The facility used for the tests is capable of conducting such large-scale fires and measuring the heat release rate using oxygen consumption calorimetry. Thermocouples and plate thermometers were installed inside the train car to provide an insight of the fire development. A number of cameras were also placed inside the car and in the tunnel providing live videos during the test. The peak heat release rate was 32 MW at 1081 s after ignition, and the fire burned 83% of the initial fire load. Flame spread data and recordings of window breaking events are discussed and compared to the heat release rate data. A local flashover-type phenomenon where the fire involved all combustibles at the rear of the car was found to occur.     

Model scale railcar fire tests

A series of tests has been performed in a model of a typical passenger train compartment (railcar). The tests were carried out on a scale of 1–10. The main purpose of the tests was to investigate if it is possible to calculate the heat release rate for a flashed over train compartment with simple mathematical expressions derived for ordinary compartment fires. The combustion that takes place outside the windows was considered in the study. The parameters that were varied include: the ventilation, the fuel load and the type of interior surface material. In all tests, one door was open and the number of windows varied from all windows closed, to all windows opened. The ignition took place in the corner of the model compartment opposite the door opening.     

The timing of vegetation fire occurrence in a human landscape

Vegetation fires in urban and peri-urban (human) landscapes damage property and infrastructure, threaten lives and incur considerable suppression costs. This study investigated the timing of fires burning in vegetation within and around the city of Perth, Western Australia. The timing of fires from 16 different cause types were investigated at hourly, daily, monthly and annual scales, and using fire danger indices and fuel moisture. Ignitions from most causes were shown to have hourly and monthly profiles that reflect fire danger and fuel availability. Some causes with low heat outputs, such as cigarettes and sparks from cutting and welding, were more sensitive to fire danger and fuel availability than others. Causes related to arson and recreational activities, such as camp fires, were more likely to occur on weekends and public holidays. Arson prevention measures appear to have reduced the incidence of deliberately lit fires, and may have reduced the number of fires occurring on days of total fire ban, although these days have much higher rates of ignition than other days. High profile fire events also increase public awareness and reduce ignition rates. Lessons learned from analyses of fire occurrence can help fire agencies more effectively apply prevention and mitigation programs.     

燃料间距对PMMA竖向火蔓延行为的影响

以PMMA（聚甲基丙烯酸甲酯）板（8 cm×10 cm×1 cm）为实验材料,开展不同燃料间距（0~10 cm）的竖向火蔓延实验,分析火焰高度、燃烧速率、热解前锋位置及点燃滞后时间的变化规律。结果发现,随着燃料间距增加,固体表面的净火焰高度与燃烧速率均呈现先增大后减小的趋势。此外,火焰在相邻固体燃料表面的蔓延过程中出现“点燃滞后”现象,点燃滞后时间随着燃料间距的增加呈指数级增长。     

滇中地区萌生栓皮栎地表可燃物燃烧火行为研究

为评估萌生栓皮栎林的潜在火行为以及发生火灾的危险性,森林防火紧要期内在云南森林自然中心的萌生栓皮栎林进行外业调查。通过设置样地,测量样地内栓皮栎林的高度、胸径等,采集地表可燃物进行室内燃烧试验,结合野外实际状态和实验室理化分析,测定含水率、载量、灰分含量,利用点燃性、剧烈性和消耗性等指标,研究了栓皮栎地表可燃物的三维燃烧性。研究结果表明：在防火期紧要期,栓皮栎地表可燃物的含水率为3.53%～5.04%,载量为0.44～0.69 kg/m²,灰分含量为12.3%～16.4%,引燃时间为(4.8±0.3)s,蔓延速率为(0.36±0.09)m/min,烧损率为(61.99±9.29)%。可见,栓皮栎地表可燃物的含水率极低,点燃温度低,载量低,灰分含量较高,三维燃烧性表现较差;叶片很易燃,一旦有火源就容易被引燃,引发森林火灾。研究结果有利于掌握萌生栓皮栎林地表潜在火行为相关特征,为更好预防森林火灾提供参考依据,为滇中地区的林火管理提供理论支撑。     

Influence of fire ignition locations on the actuation of smoke detectors and wet-type sprinklers in a furnished office

Experiments were conducted in a full-scale model office equipped with movable and fixed fire loads to explore the influence of ignition source (movable fire load(s)) conditions on smoke detector and sprinkler actuation. The interior plan dimension is 5.7 m × 4.7 m and the net ceiling height is 3.3 m. Both northeast and southeast wings have a 2.1 m × 0.9 m single door to be opened. Seven fire scenarios (seven different ignited fire load configurations) under natural ventilation were investigated experimentally. The results show that the amount of fire load at the initial stage in a room fire does not markedly affect smoke generation and does not significantly impact the actuation time of the smoke detectors. When the fire source is located near a corner, the plume corner effect greatly increases; smoke detectors and sprinklers can activate quickly and effectively actuate the fire suppression. When the fire source is located in the room's center, given the uncertainty regarding smoke detector and sprinkler actuation, it may not be possible to control the fire spread.     

A computational study of the flammability of methanol and gasoline fuel spills on hot engine manifolds

The fire hazards associated with gasoline and methanol are different because of the different physical and chemical properties of the fuels. In particular, the composition of the vapors they emit determines the comparative risk of a fire or explosion in cases of accidents or fuel leaks. This study compares the behavior of methanol and gasoline (n-octane) using mathematical models, so as to assist in determining whether there is an increased risk associated with the use of methanol fuels. The flammable zones surrounding a representative unconfined exhaust manifold were determined for methanol and n-octane at two manifold surface temperatures (700 and 1000 K) using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) techniques. Some of the CID computations were also confirmed experimentally. It was found that for a manifold surface temperature of 700 K, neither fuel would ignite, although the surface temperature is above the autoignition temperature for both fuels. At a surface temperature of 1000 K, it was found that each fuel could ignite and that this temperature would be near the minimum required for either fuel to be ignited by a hot surface. The predictions also confirm the experimentally observed phenomenon that real hot surface ignition temperatures are, generally, well above autoignition temperatures. It was concluded that the risk of spontaneous ignition is similar for both fuels for the type of leak scenario investigated (i.e. the risk with methanol is not significantly different than that of gasoline). The use of two-dimensional (2-D) steady-state CFD simulations can provide significant insight into the behavior of different fuels in what is generally a three-dimensional (3-D) transient phenomenon.     

Influences of Talc on Fire Performance of Low Density Polyethylene

In this paper the effects of talc on the ignition time, the burning rate and the downward flame spread rate of low density polyethylene were studied through the cone calorimeter test, the modified UL 94 vertical burning test and a designed downward flame spread experiment. Cone calorimeter tests show that the mass loss rate (MLR) and the heat release rate (HRR) decrease with increasing the talc content, which is ascribed to the residue formed by talc. When the loading of talc is low, talc powders aggregate to form separate talc tablets during burning, leading to the slight decrease of MLR and HRR. When the mass fraction of talc is higher than 20%, possibly the percolation threshold for barrier effect of talc, an integral crust covering the whole specimen surface is generated to act as a good heat and mass barrier, resulting in the significant drop of MLR and HRR. However, no evidence of char in the residue is found. The ignition time in both the cone calorimeter test and the modified UL 94 test initially decreases and then increases with increasing the talc content. It is supposed that the wick effect of talc aggregations reduces the ignition time while the dilution effect and the barrier effect delay the ignition time. The downward flame spread rate initially increases and then decreases with increasing the talc content, which is suspected to be related with the reduction of ignition time and melt flow rate during burning caused by talc.