Numerical study of the relative importance of turbulence, particle size and density, and injection parameters on particle behavior during thermal plasma spraying

Numerical modeling is used to systematically examine the effects of turbulence, injection, and particle characteristics on particle behavior during thermal plasma spraying. Using the computer program LAVA (Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory, Idaho Falls, ID), a steady-state plasma jet typical of a commercial torch at normal operating conditions is first developed. Then, assuming a single particle composition (ZrO₂) and injection location, real world complexity (e.g., turbulent dispersion, particle size and density, injection velocity, and direction) is introduced “one phenomenon at a time” to distinguish and characterize its effect and enable comparisons of separate effects. A final calculation then considers all phenomena simultaneously, to enable further comparisons. Investigating each phenomenon separately provides valuable insight into particle behavior. For the typical plasma jet and injection conditions considered, particle dispersion in the injection direction is most significantly affected by (in order of decreasing importance): particle size distribution, injection velocity distribution, turbulence, and injection direction distribution or particle density distribution. Only the distribution of injection directions and turbulence affect dispersion normal to the injection direction and are of similar magnitude in this study. With regards to particle velocity and temperature, particle size is clearly the dominant effect.     

Investigation of particle in-flight characteristics during atmospheric plasma spraying of yttria-stabilized ZrO2: Part 1. Experimental

A detailed investigation of the relationship between the parameters of the spray process and the in-flight properties of the particles was carried out using a multivariate statistical approach. A full factorial designed experiment concerning the spray process was performed, the spray gun parameters’ current, argon flow rate, hydrogen flow rate, and powder feed rate being selected to control the process. The particle properties, viz. velocity, temperature, and diameter, were determined using an optical measurement system, DPV 2000. In addition, the standard deviations of, and the correlations between, the measured particle properties were analyzed. The results showed current to have the strongest impact on particle velocity and particle temperature and argon flow rate to be the only parameter with an inverse effect on velocity and temperature.     

Effect of spray particle trajectory on the measurement signal of particle parameters based on thermal radiation

The influences of the dimensions of optical components and the trajectories of spray particles on the variations of the waveforms of the radiation signals from the spray particles were studied both theoretically and experimentally for correct simultaneous measurement of the particle parameters including particle velocity, surface temperature, size, and spatial distribution. Two types of filtering masks, including single-windowed and dual-windowed, were used as models in the current study. The evolution of the radiation pulse from a moving thermal spray particle was simulated through the change of the projected area of the particle image spot on the filtering mask window. The experimental detection of the thermal radiation pulses was performed for the high velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) process using an optoelectronic measurement system. The theoretical simulation clearly showed that the characteristic waveforms of the thermal radiation signals from the spray particles are varied with the distance and orientation of the trajectories of thermal spray particles with respect to the ideal image plane of the filtering window plane. The typical variations of the characteristic waveforms obtained theoretically have been observed experimentally with HVOF spraying. The waveforms expected theoretically were correlated well with those observed experimentally. The characteristic waveforms of the radiation signals from the spray particles in a trapezoid shape with a saturated top platform contain the information for spray particle parameters including velocity, surface temperature, size, and spatial distribution. With the dual-windowed filtering mask, the particle velocity can be correctly measured with the bi-peak radiation signal in triangle-like shape, and the surface temperature may be estimated reasonably. However, the particle size cannot be estimated correctly. It was revealed that the characteristics of the waveforms were remarkably influenced by the image spot size. Therefore, the expansion of the image spot based on the relation between the image spot size of an in-flight particle and optical lens parameters obtained optically was discussed. The influence of the image spot size on the waveform characteristics was examined.     

Effect of plasma fluctuations on in-flight particle parameters

The influence of arc root fluctuations in direct current (DC) plasma spraying on the physical state of the particle jet is investigated by correlating individual in-flight particle temperature and velocity measurements with the instantaneous voltage difference between the electrodes. In-flight diagnostics with the DPV-2000 sensing device involve two-color pyrometry and time-of-flight technique for the determination of temperature and velocity. Synchronization of particle diagnostics with the torch voltage fluctuations are performed using an electronic circuit that generates a pulse when the voltage reaches some specific level; this pulse, which can be shifted by an arbitrary period of time, is used to trigger the acquisition of the pyrometric signals. Contrary to predictions obtained by numerical modeling, time-dependent variations in particle temperature and velocity due to power fluctuations induced by the arc movement can be very large. Periodic variations of the mean particle temperature and velocity, up to ΔT=600 °C and Δv=200 m/s, are recorded in the middle of the particle jet during a voltage cycle. To our knowledge, this is the first time that large time-dependent effects of the arc root fluctuations on the particle state (temperature and velocity) are experimentally demonstrated. Moreover, large fluctuations in the number of detected particles are observed throughout a voltage cycle; very few particles are detected during parts of the cycle. The existence of quiet periods suggests that particles injected at some specific moments in the plasma are not heated sufficiently to be detected.     

Plasma spraying of Wc-Co part I: Theoretical investigation of particle heating and acceleration during spraying

Plasma-sprayed WC-Co coatings are used extensively in a variety of wear-resistant applications. The quality of these sprayed coatings depends greatly on the temperature and velocity of the powder particles impacting the substrate. Because it is both expensive and difficult to experimentally determine these particle parameters, the present study deals with a theoretical investigation of particle heatup and acceleration during plasma spraying of WC-Co based on a recently developed model. The effect of WC-Co particle size on the evolution of particle temperature and velocity is examined through calculations performed under typical spraying conditions. The implications of the powder particles, assuming an off-axis trajectory during their traverse through the plasma flame, are also discussed.     

Effect of Substrate Temperature on Deposition Behavior of Copper Particles on Substrate Surfaces in the Cold Spray Process

The deposition behavior of sprayed individual metallic particles on the substrate surface in the cold spray process was fundamentally investigated. As a preliminary experiment, pure copper (Cu) particles were sprayed on mirror-polished stainless steel and aluminum (Al) alloy substrate surfaces. Process parameters that changed systematically were particle diameter, working gas, gas pressure, gas temperature, and substrate temperature, and the effect of these parameters on the flattening or adhesive behavior of an individual particle was precisely investigated. Deposition ratio on the substrate surface was also evaluated using these parameters. From the results obtained, it was quite noticeable that the higher substrate temperature brought about a higher deposition rate of Cu particles, even under the condition where particles were kept at room temperature. This tendency was promoted more effectively using helium instead of air or nitrogen as a working gas. Both higher velocity and temperature of the particles sprayed are the necessary conditions for the higher deposition ratio in the cold spraying. However, instead of particle heating, substrate heating may bring about the equivalent effect for particle deposition. This article is an invited paper selected from presentations at the 2007 International Thermal Spray Conference and has been expanded from the original presentation. It is simultaneously published in Global Coating Solutions, Proceedings of the 2007 International Thermal Spray Conference, Beijing, China, May 14-16, 2007, Basil R. Marple, Margaret M. Hyland, Yuk-Chiu Lau, Chang-Jiu Li, Rogerio S. Lima, and Ghislain Montavon, Ed., ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 2007.     

One-dimensional mathematical model for selecting plasma spray process parameters

A simple, unified, one-dimensional model has been developed to relate the effects of plasma spray parameters on the temperature and velocity of the plasma and particles and on the void content in the coating. The torch, spray, and substrate regions in a plasma spray process were first modeled independently and then coupled so that the plasma and particle characteristics calculated in one region served as inputs for the subsequent region. Comparison of the model predictions with experimental data showed reasonable agreement. Deviations from the measured data were attributable to the simplifying assumptions used in modeling the different regions of the process. A parametric analysis of the unified one- dimensional model showed that, despite its simplicity, the model is well suited for optimizing process parameters in terms of particle type and size to obtain high- integrity coatings.     

In-situ particle temperature, velocity, and size measurements in DC Arc plasma thermal sprays

Particle temperature, velocity, and size measurements in DC arc plasma thermal sprays are reported in this article. Experiments were performed using a conventional DC are argon-hydrogen plasma with two 7 wt % yttria-stabilized zirconia powders injected transversely into the plasma jet. Measurements were performed along the axis of the plasma jet as well as at a number of radial locations at several axial positions. It was found that transverse injection of the powder results in the aerodynamic size classification of the powder with the large particles penetrating further across the plasma jet than the smaller particles, which were more readily swept by the high momentum of the plasma jet. Consequently, the particle temperatures were influenced by their degree of penetration into the core of the plasma jet. Average particle temperatures showed a good degree of uniformity radially and decayed with increasing downstream distance. When nanoclustered particles were injected into the plasma, significant differences in particle velocities and temperatures were observed in comparison to the conventional powder under the same plasma operating and particle injection conditions. These differences were attributed to the penetration characteristics of the powder into the plasma jet and the consequent effects on the particle heat up. Hence, axial injection of powder into plasma jets may provide more uniform and axisymmetric particle property distributions compared to the transverse injection schemes.     

Investigation of particle in-flight characteristics during atmospheric plasma spraying of yttria stabilized ZrO2: Part 2. modeling

Yttria stabilized ZrO₂ particle in-flight characteristics in an Ar-H₂ atmospheric plasma jet have been studied using analytical and experimental techniques. In the previous article,^[1] the primary gas flow, plasma composition, current, and powder feed rate were systematically varied and particle surface temperatures, velocities, and size distributions measured and statistically analyzed. In this paper, a mathematical model for the plasma flow and particle characteristics is presented. Model predictions are compared with the experimental results in Ref 1 and a reasonable correlation is found. A statistical investigation (composite cubic face (CCF)) is performed on the particle predictions, giving fast and simple relationships between gun parameters and particle in-flight properties. The statistical and theoretical models that are presented here combine to form a powerful and cost-effective tool, which can be used in the evaluation and optimization of spray parameters off-line.     

Novel method for in-flight particle temperature and velocity measurements in plasma spraying using a single CCD camera

A novel, technically simple imaging system for individual, in-flight particle temperature and velocity measurements for plasma and other thermal spray processes is described. A custom double dichroic mirror is used to add spectral resolving capability to a single, black-and-white, fast-shutter digital charge coupled device (CCD) camera. The spectral double images produced by the individual in-flight particles are processed using specialized image processing algorithms. Particle temperature determination is based on two-color pyrometry, and particle velocities are measured from the length of the particle traces during known exposure times. In this paper, experimental results using the first prototype system are presented. Laboratory tests were performed using rotating pinholes to simulate in-flight particles, and plasma spraying experiments were performed with commercial, standard spraying equipment operated with Al₂O₃ and NiCrAlY powders. The prototype instrument can be readily used to determine velocity and temperature distributions of individual in-flight particles from the imaged region of interest of the plume. Dividing the imaged area into smaller sections, spatial distributions of particle temperature, velocity, and number of detected particles can be studied. The study aims to develop a technically simple, single imaging instrument, which can provide a visual overview of the spray plume in combination with quantitative evaluation of the most important spray particle parameters.     

In-situ plasma spraying: Alumina formation and in-flight particle diagnostic

In-situ plasma spraying (IPS) is a promising process to fabricate composite coatings with in-situ formed thermodynamically stable phases. In the present study, mechanically alloyed Al-12Si and SiO₂ powder was deposited onto an aluminum substrate by atmospheric plasma spraying (APS) to obtain a composite coating consisting of in-situ formed alumina reinforced hypereutectic Al-18Si matrix alloy. The effects of spray parameters (arc current and spray distance) and in-flight particle characteristics (temperature and velocity) on in-situ reaction intensity (alumina and silicon) have been investigated. The results show that, in-situ alumina formation and silicon intensity strongly depend on in-flight particle characteristics, spray distance and substrate temperature.     

Particle behavior in supersonic flow during the cold spray process

The cold spray process is a relatively new process that uses high velocity metallic particles for surface modifications. Metallic powder particles are injected into a converging-diverging nozzle and accelerated to supersonic velocities. In this study two-dimensional temperature and velocitiy distributions of gas along the nozzle axis are calculated and the effects of gas pressure and temperature on particle velocities and temperature inside and outside the nozzle are investigated. It was found that acceleration of the gas velocity takes place in the area of the nozzle throat, and it increases and reaches a maximum value at the nozzle exit. Due to compression shocks, irregular changes of the gas jet properties were found in the area after the nozzle and these resulted in the experience of the maximum particle velocity by the change of the particle size at a given gas pressure and temperature.     

Influence of particle parameters at impact on splat formation and solidification in plasma spraying processes

A measurement system consisting of two high- speed two- color pyrometers was used to monitor the flattening degree and cooling rate of zirconia particles on a smooth steel substrate at 75 or 150 °C during plasma spray deposition. This instrument provided data on the deformation behavior and freezing of a particle when it impinged on the surface, in connection with its velocity, size, and molten state at impact. The results emphasized the influence of temperature and surface conditions on particle spreading and cooling. When the substrate temperature was 150 °C, the splats had a perfect lenticular shape, and the thermal interface resistance between the lamella and the substrate ranged from 10^{− 7} to 10^{− 8} W/m² · K. The dependence of the flattening degree on the Reynolds number was investigated.     

Computational study and experimental comparison of the in-flight particle behavior for an external injection plasma spray process

A three-dimensional computational fluid dynamic (CFD) analysis using Fluent V5.4 was conducted on the in-flight particle behavior during the plasma spraying process with external injection. The spray process was modeled as a steady jet issuing from the torch nozzle via the heating of the are gas by an electric are within the nozzle. The stochastic discrete model was used for the particle distribution. The particle temperature, velocity, and size inside the plasma plume at a specified standoff distance have been investigated. The results show that carrier gas flow rate variation from 2 standard liters per minute (slm) to 4.0 slm can increase the centerline particle mean temperature and mean velocity by 10% and 16%, respectively, at the specified standoff distance. A further increase of the carrier gas flow rate to 6 slm did not change the particle temperature, but the particle velocity was decreased by 20%. It was also found that an increase in the total arc gas flow rate from 52 slm to 61 slm, with all other process parameters unchanged, resulted in a 17% higher particle velocity, but 6% lower particle temperature. Some of these computational findings were experimentally confirmed by Kucuk et al. For a given process parameter setting, the kinetic and thermal energy extracted by the particles reached a maximum for carrier gas flow rate of about 3.5–4.0 slm.     

Comparison of oxidation behavior of Ni–20Cr alloy and Ni-base self-fluxing alloy during air plasma spraying

Oxidation behavior of Ni–20Cr alloy and Ni-base self-fluxing (NiCrSiBC) alloy in atmospheric plasma spraying was studied experimentally. The in-flight particles were collected by quenching into liquid nitrogen. The oxygen contents in the collected particles and the coatings deposited on a substrate were analyzed by the inert gas fusion method. The oxide distribution, morphology and phase composition were analyzed using SEM, EDX, XRD, and AES. The results clearly show that the oxygen content in the NiCrSiBC coating was remarkably lower than that in the Ni20Cr coating by a factor of over 10. The formation of Cr₂O₃ and its vaporization primarily occurred during the flight of Ni20Cr particles, which dominated the oxidation in the coating. In contrast, little oxygen pickup occurred during flight for the NiCrSiBC alloy particles and a thin surface layer of 5 nm with rich in oxygen was found on the surface of NiCrSiBC splats. The mechanism of protecting NiCrSiBC alloy particles from oxidation is preferential oxidation of C, Si and B and simultaneous vaporization of the formed oxides.     

In-situ TiB2-Al2O3 formed composite coatings by atmospheric plasma spraying: Influence of process parameters and in-flight particle characteristics

In the present study, mechanically alloyed Al-12Si, B₂O₃ and TiO₂ powder was deposited onto an aluminum substrate using atmospheric plasma spraying (APS). The effects of mechanical alloying (MA) time and plasma parameters (arc current and primary/secondary/carrier gas flow rate) on in-situ reaction intensity and in-flight particle characteristics (temperature and velocity) have been investigated. It has been observed that MA time has a remarkable effect on powder morphology and relative amount of in-situ formed TiB₂ and γ-Al₂O₃. In-flight particle diagnostic measurements demonstrate that among the plasma parameters arc current has the strongest effect on in-flight particle velocity and temperature. Also, results indicate that in-flight particle velocity is more dominant than temperature on the relative amount of in-situ formed phases.     

高速电弧喷涂雾化熔滴传热过程数值分析Ⅰ.数学模型及传热参数变化规律

采用流体力学理论、凝固理论和牛顿冷却模式,提出了高速电弧喷涂雾化熔滴传热过程的数学模型,并用一种Fe-Al合金进行数值计算,用Spraywatch-2i热喷涂监控系统测试不同喷涂距离处熔滴平均温度的变化,以验证数学模型的正确性,并分析了雾化熔滴传热参数的变化规律。结果表明,计算结果与实测数据基本吻合。雾化过程中熔滴的对流换热系数、温度、固相分数及冷却速度等传热参数呈规律性变化。直径为34μm的Fe-Al合金雾化熔滴的初始液态冷却速度达2.5×10⁶ K/s,预示涂层将具有快速凝固组织特征。