Performance evaluation of bromofluoropropene in extinguishing liquid fuel spray fires

Liquid fuel spray fires emit high radiation heat fluxes, posing great threat to humans. The study of suitable agents and techniques for extinguishing this particular type of fire is of great importance. In this study, degradable 2‐bromo‐3,3,3‐trifluoropropene (BTP), a new clean fire extinguishing agent, was tested for its effectiveness in extinguishing three types of liquid fuel spray fires, namely diesel, gasoline, and ethanol. Bench‐scale experiments were conducted in a 6 × 5 × 3 m compartment with natural ventilation. The liquid fuels sprayed at varying pressures were ignited by a small open flame and then extinguished by a portable BTP extinguisher. Results showed that BTP of less than 60.0 g could extinguish all liquid fuel spray fires of 0.20 to 1.0 MPa in less than 2.0 s. The results also showed that when compared with fire sparked by gasoline and diesel, it is significantly easier to put out ethanol spray fires because of its high flame temperature and low flame power. Based on well‐established fire suppression theories and experimental results, the detailed mechanism of how BTP functions as an extinguishing agent in the suppression of liquid fuel spray fires will be discussed. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

低碳醇改性无氟泡沫的性能分析与扑灭油池火的实验研究

针对现有氟碳类泡沫灭火剂关键组分PFOS因国际环境公约出于环保和健康而限用,以及现有泡沫灭火剂还存在析液速度快而影响灭火能效等问题,在前人及团队探究无氟泡沫复配方案基础上,基于火灾化学理论与表面活性剂技术,遴选碳氢/有机硅表面活性剂(LS-99/SDS)为基剂,通过引入可改善气泡聚并的低碳醇(乙醇、正丙醇和异丁醇)调控泡沫的发泡倍数和25%析液时间等性能,开展含醇泡沫和无醇泡沫的灭火对比实验,考察低碳醇引入后的泡沫灭火能效。结果表明,引入适量浓度低碳醇可显著影响LS-99/SDS复配体系的发泡倍数和25%析液时间。相比乙醇和正丙醇,当异丁醇质量分数为0.1%时,可有效延缓含醇泡沫的析液进程和降低析液速率。通过灭火过程的火焰温度测定,发现含醇泡沫作用下10 cm和20 cm高度处的火焰最大降温速率为20.1℃·s^-1和11.2℃·s^-1,相较于无醇泡沫体系降温效果显著,降温增幅分别为39.58%和14.29%。含醇泡沫灭火剂相对于无醇泡沫灭火时间缩短了3.6 s,缩短幅度为37.5%。适量浓度的异丁醇引入到无氟泡沫体系中,可有效延缓泡沫析液进程,提高泡沫体系的发泡倍数及稳泡性能,为无氟泡沫的优化设计提供了一条新路径。建立了基于25%析液时间、平均析液速度、最大降温速率和灭火时间等综合指标的灭火效果考察方法,为泡沫灭火效能的实验室评价提供了参考依据。     

低碳醇改性无氟泡沫的性能分析与扑灭油池火的实验研究

针对现有氟碳类泡沫灭火剂关键组分PFOS因国际环境公约出于环保和健康而限用,以及现有泡沫灭火剂还存在析液速度快而影响灭火能效等问题,在前人及团队探究无氟泡沫复配方案基础上,基于火灾化学理论与表面活性剂技术,遴选碳氢/有机硅表面活性剂(LS-99/SDS)为基剂,通过引入可改善气泡聚并的低碳醇(乙醇、正丙醇和异丁醇)调控泡沫的发泡倍数和25%析液时间等性能,开展含醇泡沫和无醇泡沫的灭火对比实验,考察低碳醇引入后的泡沫灭火能效。结果表明,引入适量浓度低碳醇可显著影响LS-99/SDS复配体系的发泡倍数和25%析液时间。相比乙醇和正丙醇,当异丁醇质量分数为0.1%时,可有效延缓含醇泡沫的析液进程和降低析液速率。通过灭火过程的火焰温度测定,发现含醇泡沫作用下10 cm和20 cm高度处的火焰最大降温速率为20.1℃·s^-1和11.2℃·s^-1,相较于无醇泡沫体系降温效果显著,降温增幅分别为39.58%和14.29%。含醇泡沫灭火剂相对于无醇泡沫灭火时间缩短了3.6 s,缩短幅度为37.5%。适量浓度的异丁醇引入到无氟泡沫体系中,可有效延缓泡沫析液进程,提高泡沫体系的发泡倍数及稳泡性能,为无氟泡沫的优化设计提供了一条新路径。建立了基于25%析液时间、平均析液速度、最大降温速率和灭火时间等综合指标的灭火效果考察方法,为泡沫灭火效能的实验室评价提供了参考依据。     

Research on the influence of wollastonite fibers on the stability of foam extinguishment agent and its effect on the extinguishing efficiency of pool fire

Aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF) is a frequently used foam extinguishment agent for oil fires, but the foam stability of AFFF is not perfect, which results in poor fire extinguishing performance. In order to improve the foam stability of AFFF, wollastonite fibers were explored to increase the performance of foam extinguishment agent. The influences of wollastonite fibers' concentration on foam extinguishment agent's stability are studied. When the concentration of wollastonite fibers is 30.00 g/100 mL, the drainage time is prolonged, which is the best among all the formulas. Moreover, the fire resistance and fire-fighting performances are increased significantly due to the incorporation of wollastonite fibers. In order to reveal the effect of wollastonite fibers on the stability of foam extinguishment agent, the structure of the foam and the diameter of the bubbles are investigated. The results show that the complexity and compactness of foam layer's structure are very important for foam stability, and the fire-extinguishing performance is improved due to the introduction of wollastonite fibers.     

泡沫灭火剂中全氟辛烷磺酸类物质的管控行为及替代物研究进展

全氟辛烷磺酸（perfluorooctane sulfonic acid, PFOS）使水成膜泡沫灭火剂（aqueous film forming foam,AFFF）具有较好的耐高温和抗烧能力,但由于PFOS的难降解性、生物富集性及毒性,国内外相继对PFOS类物质进行了管控。本文简述和分析了泡沫灭火剂中PFOS类物质的管控行为及替代物研究,分析表明管控行动逐步从限制走向淘汰,研究泡沫灭火剂中PFOS类物质的替代物极为迫切;替代物的研究方向主要有两个,一个是泡沫灭火剂中短氟碳链类表面活性剂研究及短氟碳链泡沫灭火剂的灭火效果验证,但短氟碳链类表面活性剂可能存在长期环境持久性的问题;另一个是泡沫灭火剂中无氟类表面活性剂的研究,如有机硅表面活性剂、甜菜碱型表面活性剂、纯化皂苷表面活性剂,但无氟类表面活性剂可能会影响无氟泡沫灭火剂的表面活性、灭火能力、灭火效果等。泡沫灭火剂中PFOS类物质的替代物研发尚任重而道远。     

Experimental study of the combustion characteristics of methanol‐gasoline blends pool fires in a full‐scale tunnel

The combustion characteristics of methanol‐gasoline blends pool fires were studied in a series of full‐scale tunnel experiments conducted with different methanol and gasoline blends. The parameters were measured including the mass loss rate, the pool surface temperature, the fire plume centerline temperature, the ceiling temperature, the smoke layer temperature profile, the flame height, and the smoke layer interface height. The gasoline components were analyzed by GC‐MS. The effects of azeotropism on the combustion characteristics of the different blends were discussed. On the basis of the results of the fire plume centerline temperature, the ceiling temperature, and the flame height, it shows that the tunnel fire regime gradually switches from fuel controlled to ventilation controlled with increasing gasoline fractions in the blends. The fire plume can be divided into 3 regions by the fire plume centerline temperature for the different blends. The N‐percentage rule to determine the smoke layer interface height is found to be applicable for tunnel fires with different blends for N = 26.     

Improving the fire performance and smoke suppression of expandable polystyrene foams by coating with multi-dimensional carbon nanoparticles

Expandable graphite (EG) and modified multi-wall carbon nanotubes (ATH-MWNT) were introduced to expandable polystyrene (EPS) foams in order to improve its fire performance. The fire performance of EPS foams was evaluated by limiting the oxygen index (LOI), vertical burning (UL-94), and cone calorimetry tests. The results showed that the presence of 14.3% EG and 4.1% ATH-MWNT increased the LOI value from 18.0 to 30.3%, upgraded the UL-94 rating from no rating to V-0, completely eliminated melt dripping, and significantly decreased the peak heat release rate from 933 to 177 kW/m². Thermal analysis indicated that the thermal stability and char formation were improved by the presence of flame retardants. The char morphology was characterized by scanning electronic microscopy (SEM). It was suggested that the presence of EG and ATH-MWNT could form integrated char layers during combustion, which was beneficial to the formation of an intumescent protective char structure.     

大型石油储罐泡沫灭火设施技术研究

通过对大型浮顶储罐火灾特点的介绍,针对不同类型储罐火灾国内外设置的泡沫灭火设施的不同,指出了大型浮顶储罐火灾现行灭火技术的局限性．建议加强扑救大型储罐全液面火灾的研究,吸收国外的一些理念,提高大型浮顶储罐灭火系统的稳定性和可靠性。     

Remote extinguishing of large fires with powder aerosols

A new method for distant extinguishing of fire spreading in an extended closed volume such as a mine working, storehouse, subway tunnel, electric cable channels, etc. is proposed. A novel extinguishing agent based on a stable mixture of superfine ammonium phosphate [NH₄H₂PO₄] and modified fumed silica [SiO₂–CH₃] is supplied to the fire by a powerful ventilator. The properties of the extinguishing agent (average particle size, airborne residence time, distance of transfer by the air stream) have been studied in an experimental chamber (100 m³). A test extinguishing of a large‐scale fire has been performed in an experimental tunnel 180 m in length. Extinguishing agent consumption, dynamics of temperature change over the tunnel length and composition of fire gases were recorded in this test. The influence of foam concentration, addition of nitrogen and halons to aerosol, were also studied. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Improving the flame-retardant property of bottle-grade PET foam made by reactive foam extrusion

Upcycling of low intrinsic viscosity (IV) poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) grades, such as bottle- or recycled grades, by a reactive foam extrusion process, provides an appropriate alternative to high pricing, high IV grades commonly used for foaming applications. However, the drawback of bottle-grade PET foams is its flame retardant (FR) performance. In this study, pyromellitic dianhydride was used as a chain extender to foam bottle-grade PET. The influence of different FRs, containing halogenated (HFR) and four different phosphorous-based types, on the processability and final foam properties was investigated. HFR showed better processability to achieve proper foams with fine morphology compared to P-based FRs, where the FR content was adjusted between 2 and 5 wt%. However, HFR exhibited lower FR performance by cone calorimeter testing compared to the P-based FRs and the commercial reference foam Kerdyn. Nonetheless, all of the FRs can only improve the time to ignition of the neat PET foams while the other values depend on the specific type of FR. In addition, all FR foams have improved mechanical properties more than twice in comparison to the neat PET foam.     

The effect of the trimerization catalyst on the thermal stability and the fire performance of the polyisocyanurate‐polyurethane foam

In this work, 3 currently used trimerization catalysts, TMR‐2 (quaternary ammonium), K‐15 (potassium octoate), and PU‐1792 (potassium acetate) were used to produce rigid polyisocyanurate (PIR) foams with certain amounts of isocyanurate contents. The results from Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) quantitative analysis showed that PU‐1792 had the highest catalytic efficiency in isocyanurate formation. Then, the effect of different amounts of PU‐1792 catalyst on isocyanurate ring output was further investigated, and the result showed that the highest amount of isocyanurate ring formation could be attained by the 5 pphp of PU‐1792 catalyst. It was also found that the increased amount of isocyanurate ring could result in reduced cell size, improved compressive strength, and lowered thermal conductivity of PIR foam. The results from thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and cone calorimeter (CONE) test revealed that the thermal stability and fire performance of PIR foam could be improved with the increased amount of isocyanurate ring. Furthermore, the CONE test indicated that the smoke production of PIR foam decreased approximately 51.7% in comparison to the reference polyurethane (PU) foam, and the SEM image of char morphology showed that the char of PIR foam was more compact than PU foam.     

梯度金属泡沫池沸腾过程中气泡脱离特性

利用实验手段对梯度金属泡沫池沸腾过程中气泡脱离行为特性进行了探究。实验工质为去离子水、浓度分别为400 mg·L^-1和800 mg·L^-1的正庚醇溶液。梯度金属泡沫材质为铜和镍,铜泡沫层和镍泡沫层厚度均为4 mm,孔密度分别为40 PPI和10 PPI。实验结果表明：添加正庚醇会使池沸腾气泡脱离直径变小,数目减少,但其浓度变化影响不明显;在热通量6.6×10⁴ W·m^-2沸腾时,观察到气泡脱离金属泡沫骨架阻碍两种常见运动形式：气泡破裂和整体滑移;当热通量增加到1.0×10⁵ W·m^-2时,相邻的两个气泡在梯度金属泡沫内合并成一个大气泡脱离金属泡沫。     

发泡剂对三聚氰胺甲醛泡沫塑料性能的影响

用多聚甲醛代替部分甲醛溶液,与三聚氰胺在pH值为8.5～9.5、温度在85℃条件下发生羟甲基化反应,制备固含量≥65%的树脂,加入固化剂和乳化剂,用发泡剂进行发泡,讨论了不同种类的发泡剂对三聚氰胺甲醛树脂发泡理化性能的影响。结果表明,三聚氰胺甲醛树脂"泡孔"是开孔结构,MD I发泡剂能提高树脂的强度,NaH-CO3发泡剂可以提高树脂的阻燃性能,AIBN发泡剂能制备出高发泡材料。     

宽馏分重整汽油及直馏汽油芳烃快速分析

建立了对宽馏分的重整原料油及生成油芳烃的色谱分析方法,采用OV—275为固定液的色谱柱,试验表明该方法简捷,准确度和重现性良好,适用于汽油质量监控快速分析。     

三聚氰胺树脂泡沫塑料的研究应用进展

三聚氰胺甲醛泡沫塑料是一种具有良好阻燃、吸音、安全性能的新型材料。介绍了三聚氰胺甲醛树脂的基本合成工艺、以及其泡沫塑料的制备工艺。叙述了三聚氰胺泡沫塑料的国内外研究进展。展望了三聚氰胺甲醛泡沫塑料在建筑、消防和工业领域所具有的广泛应用前景,对其潜在的应用范围进行初步探讨。     

新型裂解汽油一段加氢催化剂的性能评价

对新研制的裂解汽油一段选择性加氢催化剂的性能进行了研究，考察了入口温度、反应压力、氢油比、空速、原料水含量及胶质含量等因素对双烯加氢率及加氢选择性的影响。结果表明，在适宜的工艺条件下，该种催化剂双烯加氢活性和选择性与现行工业用一段加氢催化剂性能相当，抗胶质性能较好，具有良好的工业应用前景。     

Hydro-GAP汽油加氢精制工艺技术应用

随着环保要求的日益严格,降低车用汽油中的硫、烯烃、芳烃等含量,实施汽油产品质量的升级,已势在必行。本文对汽油加氢的几种工艺技术进行了综述和对比,着重对Hydro-GAP非选择性加氢脱硫技术进行了研究。通过对催化汽油实施Hydro-GAP加氢脱硫技术,90#、93#乙醇汽油组分油硫含量、烯烃、芳烃等各项指标均低于国III标准乙醇汽油组分油中硫含量不大于160g.g-1,烯烃含量不大于33%(V),芳烃含量不大于44%的标准要求,实施了汽油产品质量升级到国Ⅲ标准的目标。     

Effect of the addition of wood flours on the properties of rigid polyurethane foam

The objective of this study is to investigate an appropriate process to fabricate the wood‐polyurethane hybrid composites [wood‐polyurethane foam (PUF)]. Rigid PUFs that contain up to 20% wood flours were successfully fabricated from polymeric 4,4‐diphenylmethane diisocyanate, polyols, silicone surfactant, dibutin dilaurate/dimethylethanolamine catalysts, and distilled water (chemical blowing agent). The effects of hydroxyl value of polyols, wood flour particle size, wood flour content, isocyanate index, and water amount on the compressive property of foam were investigated. The morphology of the cell was observed with a scanning electron microscope. Wood‐PUF with different densities were prepared at different water contents in the wood flours. The relationship between the compressive property and density was established following the Power law. The incorporation of wood flour improved the compressive property of PUF, whereas its tensile and flexural properties were reduced. The thermal stability of the PUF was improved with the addition of wood flour. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2009     

Sound absorption performance of a lightweight ceramic foam

Porous materials can be effective for sound absorption and noise reduction. A kind of lightweight cellular ceramic foam with bulk density of 0.38–0.56 g cm^-3 was successfully prepared by conventional molding with pore forming agent. The porosity is from 76.4% to 83.7% for the sample with relatively large pores (the average pore size: 5.3–5.6 mm), and from 74.1% to 81.1% for the sample with relatively small pores (the average pore size: 1.5–1.7 mm). The effects were investigated for processing parameters on the structure of samples, and for the pore size, sample thickness and porosity on the sound absorption performance of samples. The results show that the absorption performance of the ceramic foam product with relatively large pores may be superior to that with relatively small pores in the case of the approximately same porosity. The first absorption peak moves from a higher frequency to a lower frequency with the increase of sample thickness. When the porosity increases, the average sound absorption coefficient increases for all of the samples, and the first absorption peak moves from a higher frequency to a lower frequency for the sample with relatively large pores but does not change for that with relatively small pores.     

Mechanism of smoke suppression by melamine in rigid polyurethane foam

The smoke suppression of rigid polyurethane foam (RPUF) modified by melamine was investigated based on three sections: the condensed phase, the carbon layer, and the gas phase. In the condensed phase, the results of thermogravimetry, X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) N1S spectrum, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy indicated that melamine could suppress the degradation of RPUF by reacting with the aromatic hydrocarbons. It also reduced the smoke generation because the volatilizable aromatic hydrocarbons were the principal smoke precursors in a fire. In the carbon layer, the decrease from 38.50% to 24.76% of the inner layer oxygen content identified by XPS full‐spectrum and C1S spectrum indicated that melamine could prevent oxygen from transferring into the inner foam by the formation of an enhanced surface carbon layer, and the enhanced carbon layer could also block the release of smoke precursors. In the gas phase, the content of total aromatic hydrocarbons declined to 59.12% according to pyrolysis gaseous chromatography mass spectroscopy and indicated that melamine could reduce the smoke precursors. The results of smoke density chamber and cone calorimeter tests revealed that the addition of the melamine could decrease the smoke density of burning RPUF. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.