Patterns of driver stress and coping strategies in a Greek sample and their relationship to aberrant behaviors and traffic accidents

This paper presents an investigation into the relationship between driver stress, coping strategies and aberrant driving of a Greek sample of company employees (N=714). The results supported the main factor structures of the Driver Behavior Inventory (Matthews, G., Tsuda, A., Xin, G., Ozeki, Y., 1999. Individual differences in driver stress vulnerability in a Japanese sample. Ergonomics 42, 401-415) and Driver Behavior Questionnaire (Kontogiannis, T., Kossiavelou, Z., Marmaras, N., 2002. Self-reports of aberrant behavior on the roads: errors and violations in a sample of Greek drivers. Accident Anal. Prev. 34, 391-399). An inventory of coping strategies was also examined in terms of self reports. Confrontive coping was characteristic of drivers high on aggression who also had higher rates of mistakes and violations. Coping in terms of self-criticism was exhibited by drivers high on dislike of driving (i.e., anxiety) who reported a higher incidence of mistakes. Task-focus coping was characteristic of alertness and had a weak correlation with confidence. Drivers high in confidence reported fewer mistakes and violations which, in association with low perception of risk, was a particularly worrying aspect of driving. A contextual model of accident involvement was tested with LISREL in which violations yielded a direct effect whilst aggression yielded an indirect effect mediated by violations. Alertness and confidence were both related to safety orientation but failed to predict accident rates and speeding convictions.     

Young novice driver subtypes: Relationship to driving violations, errors and lapses

The present study aimed to identify, in a large Italian sample of young, novice drivers, specific subtypes of drivers on the basis of combinations of self-reported personality traits (i.e., driving anger, anxiety, angry hostility, excitement-seeking, altruism, normlessness and driving locus of control) and to evaluate their high-risk driving behaviors not only in terms of traffic rule violations and risk-taking behaviors, but also in terms of driving errors and lapses as measured by the Manchester Driver Behavior Questionnaire. Participants were 1008 high school students between the ages of 18 and 23 years, with valid driver's licenses. On the basis of a cluster analysis of the personality variables, three easily interpretable driver subgroups were identified (risky drivers, worried drivers and careful drivers) that differed on self-reported accident involvement, attitudes toward traffic safety and risk perception, as well as on driving violations, errors, and lapses. The inclusion of internal and external driving locus of control, variables not previously considered in similar cluster studies, provided a relevant contribution to the final cluster solution. Further, the use of the Driving Behavior Questionnaire permitted the differentiation between deliberate deviations from safe driving practices and mistakes due to misjudgments or lapses in attention. This distinction was critical for understanding the behavior of each of the three identified subgroups of drivers, and for planning interventions to promote safe driving.     

Crash risk and aberrant driving behaviors among bus drivers: The role of personality and attitudes towards traffic safety

Several studies have shown that personality traits and attitudes toward traffic safety predict aberrant driving behaviors and crash involvement. However, this process has not been adequately investigated in professional drivers, such as bus drivers. The present study used a personality–attitudes model to assess whether personality traits predicted aberrant self-reported driving behaviors (driving violations, lapses, and errors) both directly and indirectly, through the effects of attitudes towards traffic safety in a large sample of bus drivers. Additionally, the relationship between aberrant self-reported driving behaviors and crash risk was also assessed.     

Dimensions of driving anger and their relationships with aberrant driving

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between driving anger and aberrant driving behaviours. An internet-based questionnaire survey was administered to a sample of Chinese drivers, with driving anger measured by a 14-item short Driving Anger Scale (DAS) and the aberrant driving behaviours measured by a 23-item Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ). The results of Confirmatory Factor Analysis demonstrated that the three-factor model (hostile gesture, arrival-blocking and safety-blocking) of the DAS fitted the driving anger data well. The Exploratory Factor Analysis on DBQ data differentiated four types of aberrant driving, viz. emotional violation, error, deliberate violation and maintaining progress violation. For the anger–aberration relation, it was found that only “arrival-blocking” anger was a significant positive predictor for all four types of aberrant driving behaviours. The “safety-blocking” anger revealed a negative impact on deliberate violations, a finding different from previously established positive anger–aberration relation. These results suggest that drivers with different patterns of driving anger would show different behavioural tendencies and as a result intervention strategies may be differentially effective for drivers of different profiles.     

驾驶员风险驾驶行为及影响因素分析

为探究中国驾驶员风险驾驶行为产生的原因及其影响因素,利用修正的曼彻斯特DBQ问卷对349名中国驾驶员进行了问卷调查。经过探索性因素分析(EFA)得到了4因子结构模型,分别命名为认知错误、违规行为、无意失误和记忆力流失,并利用验证性因素分析(CFA)对该模型进行了验证。研究了性别与驾驶行为的关系,结果表明男性驾驶员更容易发生违规行为,而女性驾驶员发生无意失误行为的频率较男性驾驶员偏高。通过变量间的相关性分析,研究了驾驶员的统计学信息、4因子以及交通事故之间的关系,构建了基于Logistic回归的交通事故预测模型,研究表明违规行为和年龄是影响交通事故的重要参数。     

Self-reports of aberrant behaviour on the roads: errors and violations in a sample of Greek drivers

Recent studies have shown that unsafe driver acts can be classified into two distinct categories (i.e.. errors and violations) entailing different measures for reducing road traffic accidents. A survey of over 1,400 drivers in Greece is reported in which a variety of aberrant driving behaviours have been identified. The present study has confirmed the results of earlier studies in the driving populations of Britain. Australia and Sweden that errors and violations are the major determinants in the factor structure of aberrant behaviours. Three types of violations were identified including, highway code-, aggressive- and parking-violations (or situational violations). Mistakes and lapses were two major forms of errors. The factor analysis identified another two classes of behaviour that could not be accounted for very well by the error-violation distinction. One class of behaviours referred to a state of low preparedness and negligence while the other class referred to communication errors and 'social disregard' for the other road users. Each class of behaviour was found to have different demographic correlates. Finally, accident liability was predicted by self-reported tendency to commit highway-code violations, but not by tendency to make errors due to failures of judgement (i.e.. mistakes) or lapses. Aggressive violations were significantly related to involvement in speeding convictions and law-breaking whilst highway-code violations were related to speeding convictions only.     

Self-reported and observed risky driving behaviors among frequent and infrequent cell phone users

The apparently higher crash risk among individuals who use cell phones while driving may be due both to the direct interference of cell phone use with the driving task and tendencies to engage in risky driving behaviors independent of cell phone use. Measurements of actual highway driving performance, self-reported aberrant driving behaviors as measured by the Manchester Driver Behavior Questionnaire (DBQ), and attitudes toward speeding, passing behaviors and relative concern about being involved in a crash were assessed. Individuals who reported frequently using cell phones while driving were found to drive faster, change lanes more frequently, spend more time in the left lane, and engage in more instances of hard braking and high acceleration events. They also scored higher in self-reported driving violations on the DBQ and reported more positive attitudes toward speeding and passing than drivers who did not report using a cell phone regularly while driving. These results indicate that a greater reported frequency of cell phone use while driving is associated with a broader pattern of behaviors that are likely to increase the overall risk of crash involvement.     

Aberrant driving behaviors: A study of drivers in Beijing

The addition of massive numbers of new drivers with varied driving experience to roads in China suggests it is important to understand the nature of aberrant driving behaviors for this new set of drivers. A paper-based and an Internet survey were administered. Factor analysis produced a five-factor structure for each survey. The distinction between violations and errors indicated in previous studies was confirmed. The violations included emotional violations, risky violations and self-willed violations, and the errors included inexperience errors and distraction errors. In contrast to previous work, age was not found to be a good predictor of violations though driving experience was. Contrary to expectations, non-automotive (bicycle) roadway experience or level of driving training failed to predict poor driving behavior. On-road experience is the key to risk for China's drivers. Good agreement between the paper-based and Internet surveys indicate online surveys to be a feasible way to conduct research of driving behavior at low cost.     

Self-reported driving behaviors as a function of trait anxiety

This study examined self-reported driving behaviors in 120 (Israeli) male drivers as a function of trait anxiety (TA). TA was assessed through the TA scale of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. For the analysis of driving behaviors, the present study used the Driver Behavior Questionnaire (DBQ) and adopted previous distinctions between four classes of behaviors within the DBQ: errors, lapses, ordinary violations and aggressive violations. Regression analyses revealed that level of TA had a significant direct positive effect on all dependent variables, suggesting riskier driving behaviors among high-anxious individuals. Significant logarithmic effects for all measures indicate that these aberrant driving behaviors increase more at increasing LTA-, than at increasing HTA-values. Consistent with the general adverse effects of anxiety on performance effectiveness, the present findings as well, are interpreted in the framework of theories which suggest that worries occupy the capacities of working memory, at the expense of the task to be performed. The positive relation between aggressive violations and TA is sought to reflect low levels of emotional adjustment among high-anxious individuals.     

Novice drivers’ individual trajectories of driver behavior over the first three years of driving

Identifying the changes in driving behavior that underlie the decrease in crash risk over the first few months of driving is key to efforts to reduce injury and fatality risk in novice drivers. This study represented a secondary data analysis of 1148 drivers who participated in the UK Cohort II study. The Driver Behavior Questionnaire was completed at 6 months and 1, 2 and 3 years after licensure. Linear latent growth models indicated significant increases across development in all four dimensions of aberrant driving behavior under scrutiny: aggressive violations, ordinary violations, errors and slips. Unconditional and conditional latent growth class analyses showed that the observed heterogeneity in individual trajectories was explained by the presence of multiple homogeneous groups of drivers, each exhibiting specific trajectories of aberrant driver behavior. Initial levels of aberrant driver behavior were important in identifying sub-groups of drivers. All classes showed positive slopes; there was no evidence of a group of drivers whose aberrant behavior decreased over time that might explain the decrease in crash involvement observed over this period. Male gender and younger age predicted membership of trajectories with higher levels of aberrant behavior. These findings highlight the importance of early intervention for improving road safety. We discuss the implications of our findings for understanding the behavioral underpinnings of the decrease in crash involvement observed in the early months of driving.     

Personality and attitudes as predictors of risky driving among older drivers

Although there are several studies on the effects of personality and attitudes on risky driving among young drivers, related research in older drivers is scarce. The present study assessed a model of personality-attitudes-risky driving in a large sample of active older drivers. A cross-sectional design was used, and structured and anonymous questionnaires were completed by 485 older Italian drivers (Mean age = 68.1, SD = 6.2, 61.2% males). The measures included personality traits, attitudes toward traffic safety, risky driving (errors, lapses, and traffic violations), and self-reported crash involvement and number of issued traffic tickets in the last 12 months. Structural equation modeling showed that personality traits predicted both directly and indirectly traffic violations, errors, and lapses. More positive attitudes toward traffic safety negatively predicted risky driving. In turn, risky driving was positively related to self-reported crash involvement and higher number of issued traffic tickets. Our findings suggest that theoretical models developed to account for risky driving of younger drivers may also apply in the older drivers, and accordingly be used to inform safe driving interventions for this age group.     

Relationships between interest in motor racing and driver attitudes and behaviour amongst mature drivers: an Australian case study

Interest in motor racing is investigated as a possible source of influence on driver attitudes toward speeding and driver behaviour. Previous studies have identified links between motor racing and road accidents on public roads. One study found that the level of interest in motor racing was positively correlated with risky driving behaviours of young male drivers. This paper outlines a conceptual framework for investigating the association between interest in motor racing and speeding violations on public roads. A sample survey of households in Queanbeyan, NSW, was used to examine the relationship between the level of interest in motor racing and attitudes to speeding and driving violations in a group of mature drivers. Results indicate that the level of interest in motor racing is significantly related to attitudes towards speeding, controlling for age, education level and sensation seeking propensity. Higher levels of interest in motor racing are associated with higher pro-speeding attitudes. Unlike the previous research on young male drivers, there was no significant relationship between interest in motor racing and speeding violations for this study of mature drivers. The implications of the study for road safety interventions are discussed.     

Impulsivity-like traits and risky driving behaviors among college students

The present study examined the predictive effects of five impulsivity-like traits (Premeditation, Perseverance, Sensation Seeking, Negative Urgency, and Positive Urgency) on driving outcomes (driving errors, driving lapses, driving violations, cell phone driving, traffic citations, and traffic collisions). With a convenience sample of 266 college student drivers, we found that each of the impulsivity-like traits was related to multiple risky driving outcomes. Positive Urgency (tendency to act impulsively when experiencing negative affect) was the most robust predictor of risky driving outcomes. Positive Urgency is a relatively newly conceptualized impulsivity-like trait that was not examined in the driving literature previously, suggesting a strong need to further examine its role as a personality trait related to risky driving. These findings generally support the multidimensional assessment of impulsivity-like traits, and they specifically support the addition of Positive Urgency to a list of risk factors for risky driving behaviors.     

Risky and aggressive driving in young adults: Personality matters

Young, novice drivers constitute a disproportionate percentage of fatalities and injuries in road traffic accidents around the world. This study, attempts to identify motivational factors behind risky driving behavior, and examines the role of personality, especially sensation seeking, impulsivity and sensitivity to punishment/reward in predicting negative driving outcomes (accident involvement and traffic offences) among young drivers. Gender and driver's age are additional factors examined in relation to driving outcomes and personality. Adopting the contextual mediated model of traffic accident involvement (Sümer, 2003), the study is based on the theory that personality, age and gender represent distal factors that predict accident involvement indirectly through their relationship with stable tendencies towards aberrant driving behavior. Results from correlations and Structural Equation Modeling using AMOS 6 indicated that direct personality effects on driving outcomes were few, whereas personality had significant correlations with aberrant driving behavior, showing that personality is a distal but important predictor of negative driving outcomes. These high risk traits appear to be at a peak among young male drivers. Thus, personality is important in understanding aggressive and risky driving by young adults and needs to be taken into consideration in designing targeted accident prevention policies.     

营运驾驶员驾驶风格研究

目的探索了解我国营运驾驶员的驾驶风格特点,以及驾驶风格与交通违规之间的关系。方法在辽宁省沈阳、大连两个城市现场选取170名营运驾驶员完成中文版驾驶风格量表。结果驾驶风格的性别差异显著。男性驾驶风格以冒险型和愤怒型为主,女性驾驶风格以焦虑型为主。驾驶员在感觉寻求、愤怒、分心维度上的得分随着年龄的增长而下降。有交通违规记录的驾驶员在愤怒、冒险、分心和焦虑维度上的得分均高于无违规记录的驾驶员,且差异显著。结论驾驶员的驾驶风格越倾向于冒险型、愤怒型和焦虑型,他们的交通违规次数也越多,应当针对危险驾驶行为采取适当有效的预防和干预措施。     

Car driver attitudes,perceptions of social norms and aggressive driving behaviour towards cyclists

The interaction of car drivers and cyclists is one of the main causes of cycle incidents. The role of attitudes and social norms in shaping car drivers’ aggressive behaviour towards cyclists, is not well understood and merits investigation. A sample of 276 drivers completed an online questionnaire concerning their attitudes towards cyclists, attitudes towards risky driving, perception of social norms concerning aggressive driving towards cyclists, and the frequency with which they engage in such aggressive driving behaviours. The results showed that attitudes towards cyclists, as well as social norm perceptions concerning aggressive driving towards cyclists, were associated with aggressive driving towards cyclists. Negative attitudes towards cyclists were more pronounced in non-cyclists than cyclists and their association with aggressive driving behaviour was stronger in cyclists than non-cyclists. The perception of social norms concerning aggressive driving towards cyclists had a stronger association with aggressive driving in non-cyclists than cyclists. Attitudes towards risk taking did not affect aggressive driving towards cyclists. These findings can inform campaigns that aim to improve cyclist and car driver interaction on the roads, making them safer to use for cyclists.     

The effect of age,gender and attitudes on self-regulation in driving

Self-regulation in driving has primarily been studied as a precursor to driving cessation in older people, who minimise driving risk and compensate for physical and cognitive decline by avoiding driving in challenging circumstances, e.g. poor weather conditions, in the dark and at busy times. This research explores whether other demographic groups of drivers adopt self-regulatory behaviours and examines the effects of affective and instrumental attitudes on self-regulation across the lifespan. Quantitative data were collected from 395 drivers. Women were significantly more likely than men to engage in self-regulation, and to be negatively influenced by their emotions (affective attitude). A quadratic effect of age on self-regulation was determined such that younger and older drivers reported higher scores for self-regulation than middle-years’ drivers. However, this effect was affected by experience such that when experience was controlled for, self-regulation increased with age. Nevertheless, anxious driving style and negative affective attitude were independent predictors of self-regulation behaviours. Results suggest that self-regulation behaviours are present across the driving lifespan and may occur as a result of driving anxiety or low confidence rather than as an effect of ageing.     

Error specific restrictions for older drivers: promoting continued independence and public safety

OBJECTIVES: To describe a population of older drivers with driving restrictions, their most common restrictions, and to compare restricted drivers to their safe and unsafe counterparts. Safe drivers are those who do not commit hazardous errors or traffic violations. Unsafe drivers are those who commit hazardous errors and/or traffic violations that place them in hazardous situations. Restricted drivers are those who have committed traffic or rule violations only under certain driving conditions. DESIGN: A retrospective, cross-sectional study with mixed methodology. SETTING: A clinical driving evaluation program within an academic geriatrics department. PARTICIPANTS: Drivers age 60+ (N=108) referred for clinical driving evaluation and who consented to allow their data to be used for research purposes. INTERVENTION: Drivers performing at an intermediate level driving fitness were issued error specific driving restrictions. MEASUREMENT: Driving evaluation included clock drawing test (CDT), mini-mental status exam (MMSE), Trailmaking, geriatric depression scale (GDS), and simulated driving. RESULTS: The three most common restrictions were limited driving distance (N=8), limited driving time (N=8), and daytime only driving (N=8). Safe, restricted, and unsafe drivers significantly differed on MMSE (F[2,104]=10.75, p<0.001), Trailmaking Part B (F[2,76]=9.96, p<0.001), CDT (F[2,98]=29.88, p<0.001), and total number of hazardous errors (F[2,97]=39.06, p<0.001). Tukey's test indicated safe and restricted drivers scored significantly better than unsafe drivers on MMSE (safe: p<0.001; restricted: p=0.008), CDT (p<0.001), and hazardous errors (p<0.001). Restricted and unsafe drivers required significantly more time to complete Trailmaking B than safe drivers (p=0.004). CONCLUSION: Preliminary data indicate restricted drivers perform more like safe than unsafe drivers. Driving simulation is instrumental in discerning error specific limitations and categorizing patients as conditionally safe. This clinical evaluation pilots an effective alternative to premature driving cessation.     

Predicting self-reported violations among novice license drivers using pre-license simulator measures

Novice drivers are overrepresented in crash statistics and there is a clear need for remedial measures. Driving simulators allow for controlled and objective measurement of behavior and might therefore be a useful tool for predicting whether someone will commit deviant driving behaviors on the roads. However, little is currently known about the relationship between driving-simulator behavior and on-road driving behavior in novice drivers. In this study, 321 drivers, who on average 3.4 years earlier had completed a pre-license driver-training program in a medium-fidelity simulator, responded to a questionnaire about their on-road driving. Zero-order correlations showed that violations and speed in the simulator were predictive of self-reported on-road violations. This relationship persisted after controlling for age, gender, mileage, and education level. Respondents with a higher number of violations, faster speed, and lower number of errors in the simulator reported completing fewer hours of on-road lessons before their first on-road driving test. The results add to the literature on the predictive validity of driving simulators, and can be used to identify at-risk drivers early in a driver-training program.     

The Manchester Driver Behaviour Questionnaire: a cross-cultural study

The aim of the present study was to investigate if the original factorial structure of the Manchester Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ) was replicated in Finland and The Netherlands. A postal questionnaire survey of drivers was carried out in Britain, Finland and The Netherlands. Exploratory factor analysis together with target (Procrustes) rotation and factorial agreement indexes were calculated to investigate the applicability of Finnish and Dutch versions of DBQ. Results of the factor comparisons showed that the DBQ four-factor structures found in Finland and The Netherlands were congruent but not perfect with the target structure found in Britain. Reliabilities of the scales were around the same level as in the British data. In addition to the four first-order factors, two second-order factors (deliberate violations and unintentional errors) were found in all three countries which supports the original structure by Reason et al. Issues related to cross-cultural use of traffic behaviour questionnaires are discussed.