Spatial and seasonal comparisons of growth of wild and stocked juvenile lake trout in Lake Champlain

After 42 years of stocking in Lake Champlain, recruitment of wild juvenile lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) was first observed in 2015. Abundance of wild lake trout juveniles was spatially heterogeneous. Recruitment of wild fish to age-1 and subsequent survival are likely related to growth including overwinter growth. We hypothesized that growth potential or growth-related mortality of wild and stocked fish may explain spatial differences in abundance. We collected juvenile (age-0 to 3) lake trout by bottom trawling in the central, north, and south Main Lake every 2–4 weeks during the ice-free season, 2015–2018. The percentage of wild juveniles increased from 27.8% of the total catch in 2015 to 65.7% in 2018. Rates of growth in length and change in condition were compared in wild versus stocked lake trout, among sampling areas, and between seasons (sampling season relative to winter). Wild juveniles grew equally or faster in length than stocked juveniles at the same age, but changed more slowly in condition. There was a higher percentage of wild juveniles in the central sampling area than the north and south, but no differences in growth among sampling areas. Wild and stocked fish grew in length over winter, but most cohorts (6 of 7) maintained or increased condition. Results indicate high growth potential of wild juvenile lake trout and progress toward population restoration.     

Differential lipid dynamics in stocked and wild juvenile lake trout

After 45 years of stocking, lake trout in Lake Champlain have started to exhibit strong natural recruitment, suggesting a recent change in limiting factors such as prey availability or overwinter survival. The abundance of juvenile wild lake trout varies among regions of Lake Champlain which suggests the prey base, or foraging success, may vary geographically within the lake. One metric that can indicate differences in resources across regions is lake trout lipid content, which reflects the availability of food and serves as an important energy reserve for overwinter survival. We quantified total lipid content of stocked and wild age-0 to age-3 lake trout among lake regions and seasons. No spatial differences in lipid content were apparent, but wild fish had higher overall mean ± SE percent total lipid content (17.0 ± 0.7% of dry mass) than stocked fish (15.2 ± 0.7%). Lipids in fish stocked in November were high (35.1 ± 0.7% of dry mass) but dropped by spring (14.9 ± 1.3%) and continued to decline through autumn. Wild fish showed seasonal changes with winter depletion in lipids followed by summer increase, and a plateau in autumn. The lipid depletion in stocked fish poses two competing hypotheses: 1) the high lipid concentration is necessary for stocked age-0 fish to transition to foraging in the wild, or 2) the high lipid concentration is difficult to maintain on a wild diet and reduces survival in the first post-stocking year.     

Predation on emergent lake trout fry in Lake Champlain

The rehabilitation of extirpated lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) in the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain has been hindered by various biological and physiological impediments. Efforts to restore a lake trout fishery to Lake Champlain include hatchery stocking and sea lamprey control. Despite these management actions, there is little evidence of recruitment of naturally-produced fish in annual fall assessments. Spawning occurs at multiple sites lake-wide in Lake Champlain, with extremely high egg and fry densities, yet sampling for juvenile lake trout has only yielded fin-clipped fish. To investigate this recruitment bottleneck, we assessed predation pressure by epi-benthic fish on emergent fry on two spawning reefs and the subsequent survival and dispersal of fry in potential nursery areas. Epi-benthic predators were sampled with 2-h gillnet sets at two small, shallow sites in Lake Champlain throughout the 24-h cycle, with an emphasis on dusk and dawn hours. In total, we documented seven different species that had consumed fry, with consumption rates from 1 to 17 fry per stomach. Rock bass and yellow perch dominated the near-shore fish community and were the most common fry predators. Predator presence and consumption of fry was highest between 19:00 and 07:00. Predators only consumed fry when fry relative abundance was above a threshold of 1 fry trap^− 1 day^− 1. We used an otter trawl to sample for post-emergent fry adjacent to the reef, but did not capture any age-0 lake trout. Due to the observed predation pressure by multiple littoral, species on shallow spawning reefs, lake trout restoration may be more successful at deep, offshore sites.     

Reproductive Potential and Fecundity of Lake Trout Strains in Southern and Eastern Waters of Lake Ontario, 1977–1994

We assessed the reproductive potential of various genetic strains of hatchery lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) in southern and eastern Lake Ontario from indices of fecundity and indices of male abundance. Indices were constructed from catches of mature lake trout in gill nets during September 1980 to 1994 after correcting for mortality from sea lampreys (Petromyzon marinus) which occurred between September sampling and late fall spawning. Strain and age were assigned to individual lake trout based on clipped fins and maxillary bones or coded wire tags. Fecundity-length relationships for fish of the same age, determined from mature females collected in 1977 to 1981 and 1994, were not different (P > 0.05) among genetic strains. For all strains combined, fecundity-length relationships in 1977 to 1981 were not different among fish of various ages but in 1994, age-5 and -6 fish had fewer eggs (P < 0.003) than age-7 fish, and age-7 fish had fewer eggs (P < 0.003) than fish of age 8, 9, or 10. Annual indices of fecundity varied 19 fold and indices of mature males varied 11 fold; both indices were low in the early 1980s, increased sharply in the mid 1980s, and peaked in 1993. The strain which dominated fecundity and mature male indices shifted during the study from Seneca Lake strain to Lake Superior strain and then back to Seneca Lake strain. However, changes in either reproductive potential or genotypes do not appear responsible for the abrupt appearance of naturally-produced yearling lake trout throughout southern and eastern Lake Ontario in 1994–1995, the first widespread occurrence of juveniles produced by hatchery lake trout in Lake Ontario.     

Differences in seasonal distribution of wild and stocked juvenile lake trout by depth and temperature in Lake Champlain

Lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) reared in hatcheries are exposed to an environment and feeding regime that is different from wild lake trout, and are stocked at substantially larger sizes with higher lipid reserves. In addition to differences in diet and growth, this early experience may alter habitat use compared to the wild cohort. We used seasonal data on the depth and temperature distribution of wild and stocked juvenile lake trout to test for differences in habitat use and inform sampling strategies to evaluate annual recruitment. Bottom trawling was conducted from 2015 to 2019 in the central basin of Lake Champlain every two to four weeks during the ice-free season. Differences in distribution of wild and stocked lake trout were most pronounced during thermal stratification, when wild juveniles were more abundant than stocked juveniles at shallower depths and warmer temperatures and stocked juveniles were more abundant at deeper depths and colder temperatures. Temperature preferences may be a consequence of different early rearing environments; wild lake trout are acclimated to lake temperatures and forage, whereas stocked fish entered the lake with high lipid content and little foraging experience. Unbiased assessment of the proportion of wild lake trout and growth and survival of the entire juvenile lake trout population using bottom trawl sampling should either take place in the pre- and post-stratification seasons when wild and stocked fish are at the same depths, or include the full range of depths and temperatures that wild and stocked fish occupy during the stratified period.     

Lake Trout (Salvelinus Namaycush) Spawning Habitat in Seneca Lake,New York

Lake trout from Seneca Lake provide an important source of stock for Great Lakes rehabilitation but the lake trout in Seneca Lake have been hatchery supported, themselves, for many years. Hatchery catch data show a continued decline in lake trout population and this is assumed to reflect changes in hatchery stocking, fishing pressure, and lamprey predation. A commensurate increase in the smelt population, since 1973, may have also contributed to the decrease of natural recruitment by lake trout. No indication of reduced egg survival was found in the hatchery which might be related to lake contamination effects. Our survey observations (1980–81) indicate that the lower parts of deep water cobble gravels have become much degraded by fine particulates, making such sites unsuitable for spawning lake trout. It is thought that natural replacement in Seneca Lake is strongly dependent on successful hatch of eggs laid at depths of 25 to 35 m, but the observed relationship between egg deposition and optimal thermal conditions seems to be anomalous. Since no controlling relationship was found between long-term decline of the lake trout population and climatic variation, it is believed that degradation of lake spawning sites has strongly influenced natural recruitment.     

Native rainbow smelt and nonnative alewife distribution related to temperature and light gradients in Lake Champlain

Alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus) recently became established in Lake Champlain and may compete with native rainbow smelt (Osmerus mordax) for food or consume larval rainbow smelt. The strength of this effect depends partly on the spatial and temporal overlap of different age groups of the two species; therefore, we need a better understanding of factors affecting alewife and rainbow smelt distributions in Lake Champlain. We used hydroacoustics, trawls, and gill nets to document vertical fish distribution, and recorded environmental data during 16 day–night surveys over two years. Temperature, temperature change, and light were all predictors of adult and age-0 rainbow smelt distribution, and temperature and light were predictors of age-0 alewives' distribution (based on GAMM models evaluated with AIC). Adult alewives were 5–30 m shallower and age-0 alewives were 2–15 m shallower than their rainbow smelt counterparts. Adult rainbow smelt distribution overlapped with age-0 rainbow smelt and age-0 alewives near the thermocline (10–25 m), whereas adult alewives were shallower (0–6 m) and overlapped with age-0 alewives and rainbow smelt in the epilimnion. Adult rainbow smelt were in water < 10–12 °C, whereas age-0 rainbow smelt were in 10–20 °C, and adult and age-0 alewives were in 15–22 °C water. Predicting these species distributions is necessary for quantifying the strength of predatory and competitive interactions between alewife and rainbow smelt, as well as between alewife and other fish species in Lake Champlain.     

Diet differences between wild and stocked age-0 to age-3 lake trout indicate influence of early rearing environments

Wild lake trout recently began to appear in abundance in Lake Champlain after over 40 years of stocking, providing an opportunity to compare the seasonal diet of wild and stocked juveniles. We sampled 2,349 age-0 to age-3 lake trout collected in bottom trawls from April to November 2015–2018, and examined the relationship between diet and spatial heterogeneity in abundance of wild and stocked juveniles. Stocked fish were, on average, the size of wild fish one year older. Wild juveniles had fewer empty stomachs and more items per stomach than stocked fish at each age. Mysis diluviana dominated the diet of age-0 and age-1 wild lake trout until they began to consume fish in fall at age-1. In contrast, the diet of newly-stocked fish (age-1) comprised rainbow smelt (Osmerus mordax), slimy sculpin (Cottus cognatus), alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus), with Mysis only abundant in summer and fall. Number and composition of diet items varied among geographic areas of the lake but did not explain differences in abundance of wild or stocked fish by area. Diet overlap was high between wild and stocked fish for each age class at each season, except in fall at age-0. Differences in the diet of wild and stocked juveniles likely reflect effects of early rearing experience. Recruitment of wild lake trout depends on availability and abundance of Mysis, but our diet data do not provide insight to explain why recruitment is finally occurring after a protracted delay.     

Nearshore Spatial Distribution of Fishes in Gill Net Samples,Cayuga Lake,New York

Cayuga Lake fishes were collected monthly with experimental gill nets at depths of 2 to 31.5 m. Horizontally-placed nets were arranged to allow determinations of vertical and inshore-offshore variation in fish distribution and occupied temperatures. Warmwater species concentrated in inshore and surface waters at 19-23° C during the summer. Coldwater species concentrated in hypolimnetic waters at 9-15° C during the summer. Seasonal inshore-offshore movements were evident with all species except those which were captured only close to shore (northern pike, carp, smallmouth bass, white sucker). Depth ranges in which greatest numbers of common species occurred in the summer (July-September) were: alewife, inshore and surface to 15.3 m; lake trout, 15.3 to 30.5 m or more; northern pike, inshore and surface to 15.3 m; rainbow smelt, 7.6 to 30.5 m or more; spottail shiner, inshore and 7.6 m; trout-perch, inshore and 7.6 to 15.3 m; yellow perch, inshore and 7.6 to 15.3 m. Mean occupied temperatures (° C) of common species during the summer were: alewife 18.4 to 20.9; lake trout, 12.5 to 13.6; northern pike, 19.4; rainbow smelt, 10.4-14.4; spottail shiner, 19.6 to 21.5; trout-perch, 18.7-21.3; yellow perch, 19.4 to 21.0. Depth distribution was obviously influenced by temperature preferences and also by availability of food in certain species. Catch size was directly related to water temperatures in several species.     

Measures of larval lake whitefish length and abundance as early predictors of year-class strength in Lake Michigan

Many lake whitefish stocks in Lake Michigan have experienced substantial declines in growth and condition since the 1990s. Reduced growth and condition could result in reduced quality or quantity of eggs produced by spawning females, which in turn could negatively impact recruitment. We evaluated the potential for reduced recruitment by measuring early life stage density and length, and we discuss the utility of these measures as early indicators of lake whitefish year-class strength. Overall, mean larval density (number per 1000 m³ ± SE) in Lake Michigan was greater in 2006 (373.7 ± 28.3) than in 2005 (16.6 ± 24.8); whereas, mean length (mm ± SE) of larval lake whitefish was smaller in 2006 (12.87 ± 0.07) than in 2005 (14.38 ± 0.13). The ratio of zooplankton to fish density did not show an expected relationship with larval fish density or length. Rather, variation in larval density was best explained by a multiple-regression model that included larval length, spring wind intensity, and adult stock density as predictor variables. Our results suggest that the density of larval lake whitefish is not directly regulated by temperature or zooplankton density at the time of emergence, but that a potential for density-dependent regulation exists when larval emergence rates are high. We conclude that the observed declines in growth and condition of adult lake whitefish are not resulting in substantial reductions in recruitment.     

Diets,population structure,and seasonal activity patterns of mudpuppies (Necturus maculosus) in an urban,Great Lakes coastal habitat

Freshwater species native to the Laurentian Great Lakes region face numerous environmental stressors, and the conservation status and ecological relationships of many remain poorly understood. One such species, the mudpuppy (Necturus maculosus), is declining, but better information on their natural history and development of more effective population monitoring techniques is needed. We assessed seasonal variation in capture success, biases in capture techniques, and feeding ecology of mudpuppies in Wolf Lake, a highly perturbed and urban former estuarine wetland complex to Lake Michigan. Trapping periods of ≥ 3 consecutive nights occurred from January to May 2015, and October 2015 to March 2016. Overall trapping success differed among trapping periods (p = 0.01) and declined precipitously at water temperatures above 14.1 °C (p < 0.001). Mudpuppies in traps (mean 26.9 ± 0.5 cm) were larger than those caught with hand nets (mean 14.7 ± 0.8 cm, p < 0.0001), suggesting that multiple methods may be needed to accurately assess demographics. Stomach contents obtained through gastric lavage included mollusks, leeches, insects, isopods, amphipods, crayfish, fish, a frog, and a juvenile conspecific. Invasive species, including rusty crayfish (Orconectes rusticus), round gobies (Neogobius melanostomus), and zebra/quagga mussels (Dreissena spp.) were present in guts, suggesting mudpuppy foraging has changed along with aquatic communities in the region. Prey community analyses revealed differences in overall diet among size classes of mudpuppies (p = 0.001), but relatively weak similarity within size classes. Results suggest that mudpuppies in lake ecosystems occupy a broad niche that changes as they grow.     

Evidence of successful river spawning by lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) in the Lower Niagara River,Lake Ontario

Restoration of a wild-produced lake trout Salvelinus namaycush population in Lake Ontario has not been successful despite the adult population often meeting or exceeding restoration targets. Lack of high-quality spawning habitat in Lake Ontario is suggested as one impediment to recruitment of wild lake trout, although the quantity and location of spawning habitat is poorly understood. If high-quality spawning habitat is limited in Lake Ontario, lake trout may be using uncommon spawning locations such as rivers. Anecdotal angler accounts point to the Niagara River as a lake trout spawning location. To better understand the potential of the Niagara River as a spawning location, egg and juvenile fish collections were conducted 12–14 river kilometers from the mouth of the Niagara River from 2010 to 2012; and mature female lake trout with surgically implanted acoustic tags were monitored from 2015 to 2019. Genetic analyses confirmed 60% of collected eggs and 93% of collected post-hatch juvenile fish in the Niagara River were lake trout. Tagged female lake trout returned to the Niagara River over consecutive years during the spawning season. The short duration of lake trout presence in the river (mean = 56 days/year) suggests female lake trout use the Niagara River primarily for spawning. Diversity in spawning locations may provide lake trout population’s resilience against environmental variability through a portfolio effect. Improved identification of riverine spawning locations, including their overall contribution to wild recruitment, may be a useful tool for managers to restore a wild-produced population of lake trout in Lake Ontario.     

Heritage strain and diet of wild young of year and yearling lake trout in the main basin of Lake Huron

Restoration of lake trout Salvelinus namaycush stocks in Lake Huron is a fish community objective developed to promote sustainable fish communities in the lake. Between 1985 and 2004, 12.65 million lake trout were stocked into Lake Huron representing eight different genetic strains. Collections of bona fide wild fish in USGS surveys have increased in recent years and this study examined the ancestry and diet of fish collected between 2004 and 2006 to explore the ecological role they occupy in Lake Huron. Analysis of microsatellite DNA revealed that both pure strain and inter-strain hybrids were observed, and the majority of fish were classified as Seneca Lake strain or Seneca Lake hybrids. Diets of 50 wild age-0 lake trout were examined. Mysis, chironomids, and zooplankton were common prey items of wild age-0 lake trout. These results indicate that stocked fish are successfully reproducing in Lake Huron indicating a level of restoration success. However, continued changes to the benthic macroinvertebrate community, particularly declines of Mysis, may limit growth and survival of wild fish and hinder restoration efforts.     

Food of Trout and Salmon in Lake Ontario

Stomachs of trout and salmon (n = 1,904) were collected from fish registered at fishing tournaments held in New York State waters of Lake Ontario between April and September 1983 and 1984. Numbers of adult-sized fish containing identifiable food items were 323 lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush), 289 brown trout (Salmo trutta), 24 rainbow trout (S. gairdneri), 164 coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch), and 63 chinook salmon (O. tschawytscha) Proportional similarity in diet between pairs of species was high and normally exceeded 0.70; diet composition of individual species was similar between years. Alewives (Alosa pseudoharengus) were the main prey of all species during all months and were normally 110–149 mm in standard length. Rainbow smelt (Osmerus mordax) was the second most common prey eaten but was generally found in fewer than 20% of the stomachs examined during any month. Diet diversity was generally higher during April-May than during July-September for coho salmon, lake trout, and brown trout. Larger brown trout ate larger alewife in 1983 but not in 1984. Results suggest that the five trout and salmon species in Lake Ontario are potential competitors.     

Quantifying a shift in benthic dominance from zebra (Dreissena polymorpha) to quagga (Dreissena rostriformis bugensis) mussels in a large,inland lake

Dreissenid mussels are aggressive invasive species that are continuing to spread across North America and co-occur in the same waterbodies with increasing frequency, yet the outcome and implications of this competition are poorly resolved. In 2009 and 2015, detailed (700 + sample sites) surveys were undertaken to assess the impacts of invasive dreissenid mussels in Lake Simcoe (Ontario, Canada). In 2009, zebra mussels were dominant, accounting for 84.3% of invasive mussel biomass recorded. In 2015, quagga mussels dominated (88.5% of invasive mussel biomass) and had expanded into profundal (> 20 m water depth) sites and onto soft (mud/silt) substrates with a mean profundal density of 887 mussels/m² (2015) compared to ~ 39 mussels/m² in 2009. Based on our annual benthos monitoring, at a subset of ~ 30 sites, this shift from zebra to quagga mussels occurred ~ 2010 and is likely related to a population decline of zebra mussels in waterbodies where both species are present, as recorded elsewhere in the Great Lakes Region. As the initial invasion of dreissenid mussels caused widespread ecological changes in Lake Simcoe, we are currently investigating the effects this change in species dominance, and their expansion into the profundal zone, will have on the lake; and our environmental management strategies. Areas of future study will include: changes in the composition of benthos, fish, or phytoplankton communities; increased water clarity and reduction of the spring phytoplankton bloom; energy/nutrient cycling; and fouling of anthropogenic in-lake infrastructures (e.g. water treatment intakes) built at depths > 25 m to avoid previous zebra mussel colonization.     

Wild juvenile salmonid abundance in Wisconsin tributaries indicates limited contributions to Lake Michigan fisheries

Natural reproduction of salmonids occurs in many Lake Michigan tributaries, yet little is known about abundance and the potential contribution of wild fish hatching in Wisconsin tributaries. The objectives of our study were to determine if: 1) abundance of wild juvenile salmonids (primarily adfluvial rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, referred to as steelhead) varied among selected Wisconsin streams based on available spawning and age-0 habitat; 2) stream temperature regimes could limit survival of juvenile salmonids, and 3) wild juvenile salmonids outmigrate from Wisconsin tributaries into Lake Michigan or larger tributaries. In 2016 and 2017, juvenile salmonid abundance was estimated in six Wisconsin tributaries to Lake Michigan by multiple-pass depletion sampling using backpack electrofishing. Habitat assessments included steelhead redd surveys, age-0 habitat surveys, and stream temperatures were monitored using in-stream loggers. Passive integrated transponder (PIT) tagging and PIT antennas were used to detect outmigration from three streams (Willow, Stony and Hibbard creeks). Population estimates for individual streams ranged from 75 to 2276 for juvenile steelhead and from 0 to 243 for juvenile coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch. No correlation was detected between juvenile steelhead abundance and quality age-0 habitat. Stream temperatures rarely exceeded the thermal limit for steelhead (27 °C). Outmigration rates for three streams ranged from 0.6% to 3.1%, but these estimates were considered minimum values. Low abundance of wild juvenile steelhead and coho salmon alone suggest that the contributions of these tributaries to Lake Michigan fisheries are likely small. Furthermore, relying on returns of wild steelhead produced in these streams is probably insufficient to maintain stream fisheries.     

Calculated Contribution of Surface Microlayer PCB to Contamination of Lake Michigan Lake Trout

The possible significance of PCB concentration in the surface microlayer of Lake Michigan to contamination of lake trout was examined using a modification of a previously developed food chain model. Vertically migrating zooplankton were assumed to spend a fraction of each day exposed to a surface microlayer with dissolved and phytoplankton PCB concentrations at values that resulted in an average exposure concentration 2.1 times greater than subsurface levels. Considering a worst case scenario, the model indicated that approximately 12% (3 μg/g) of the PCB concentration in adult lake trout could be contributed from the microlayer.     

Evaluation of Bottom Trawls as Compared to Acoustics to Assess Adult Lake Herring (Coregonus artedi) Abundance in Lake Superior

We compared density estimates from day bottom trawl tows against night midwater trawl tows and acoustic gear to test the hypothesis that adult lake herring (≥ 250 mm) are underestimated by day bottom trawl tows during the annual USGS spring fish community survey in Lake Superior. We found average density at nine nearshore stations was significantly higher at night (21.3 adult fish/ha) compared to day (1.0 adult fish/ha; p = 0.0119). At nine offshore stations, no lake herring were captured during the day but density averaged 39.6 adult fish/ha at night. At a lakewide scale (n = 18 stations), precision (relative standard error) was much better using night midwater trawls and acoustic gear (37%) compared to day bottom trawls (100%). Moderate sample size increases using the former methodology would likely bring precision within recommended levels (≤ 30%) for stock-recruit data sets. Our results suggest that 1) population abundances of adult lake herring in Lake Superior are much higher than previously considered, 2) the annual spring fish community survey may not provide a relative index of abundance of adult lake herring, 3) night midwater trawls and acoustic gear are necessary for assessing adult lake herring abundance, and 4) previous studies using lake herring data from the annual spring fish community survey need to be re-evaluated in light of these results. Lake herring appear to become progressively more pelagic and less susceptible to bottom trawling as they mature. Day bottom trawls appear to be an adequate tool for estimating relative density of age-1 recruits, although this method still suffers from relatively poor precision.     

The influence of conditions in Lake Superior and the Bois Brule River,Wisconsin on returns of migratory rainbow trout

Rainbow trout were introduced to Lake Superior in the late 1800’s and exhibit a potamodromous life history and exhibit high variability in reproductive success. We examined reproductive variability in the Bois Brule River, WI (Lake Superior), through analyses of returns of wild first spawning (hereafter “maiden” returning) adults. We used classification and regression tree analyses to identify in-stream and in-lake (western Lake Superior) sources of variability and to identify the environment (stream or lake) that was most influential to the returns to each location. Among in-stream influences, high discharge rates in the spring period (March – May) during a pre-smolt’s first stream year were the strongest source of variability and were negatively correlated with returns. High discharge during the fall period from September to November in the pre-smolt first stream year was also negatively correlated with numbers of maiden returning steelhead from that year class. When variables associated with Lake Superior were considered, maiden returns were positively correlated with higher lake surface temperatures in Lake Superior. Returns were negatively correlated with the abundance of adult rainbow smelt and bloater suggesting a possible competitive interaction among those species. Finally, we also observed a conditional (minor) positive effect of age-0 smelt abundance indicating the importance of this prey for juveniles in colder years in western Lake Superior. Taken together, our findings indicate that both stream and lake conditions in their first lake year are important sources of variability and point to spates in the spring and fall as initial controlling variables.     

Salmonid Spawning Runs and Estimated Ova Production in Normandale Creek of Lake Erie

The Normandale Creek study area (2,531 m²)provides spawning and nursery grounds for lake-run coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch), rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri), and brown trout (Salmo trutta), In 1973–74, 59 adult salmonids (58% rainbow trout, 39% coho salmon, and 3% brown trout) ascended the stream between 31 October and 12 May. Upstream movements were significantly related to peak stream discharge (r = 0.21) and highly significantly related to discharge occurring on the day following the peak freshet (r = 0.34). Despite a highly significant correlation (r = 0.29) between flow and water temperature, the latter factor is not significantly related with upstream movement of adult fish. Coho salmon spawned at water temperatures of 1 to 10° C between 2 November and 19 December, rainbow trout at 1 to 15° C between 9 November and 14 May, and brown trout at 7° C between 4 and 5 November. Of 86 nests constructed, 60% were disturbed by re-use or sand deposition. From a calculated deposition of 90,403 ova, it is estimated that some 22% survived to emergence.