Acoustic Emission Damage Assessment of Steel/CFRP Bonds for Rehabilitation

The use of adhesively bonded carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates is increasingly being considered for the rehabilitation of metallic structures. The effective structural monitoring of steel/CFRP adhesive joints is of critical importance to assess the design service performance of the system, which ultimately depends on the bond damage tolerance at the load transfer regions. In the present study laboratory static and fatigue tests were conducted on steel/CFRP skin doubler and double strap joint specimens, which were monitored using the acoustic emission (AE) technique. The characteristics of the AE signals were correlated with the mechanical response of the samples, in order to understand the AE response associated with the accumulation of bond damage. One-dimensional source location was also performed to examine the initiation and the development of the disbond. The results show that AE parameter-based analysis is an effective nondestructive evaluation tool for bond damage detection and area location.     

Slip between Glue-Laminated Beams in Stress-Laminated Timber Bridges: Finite-Element Model and Full-Scale Destructive Test

Stress-laminated timber bridge decks consist of several sawn timber beams or glue-laminated (glulam) beams held together with prestressed steel bars. Frictional shear stresses between the beams transfer loads between individual beams. Because the vertical (transverse) shear stress component has been extensively discussed, this paper considers the horizontal shear stress. A full-scale test and corresponding finite element simulations for a specific load case confirmed that horizontal slip occurred between beams. Using an elastic-plastic material model, the finite element model handled both vertical and horizontal frictional slip. The results showed that the finite element model gives reliable results and that slip in general leads to permanent deformations, which may increase with load cycling. Horizontal slip between beams over a large area of the bridge deck begins at a low load, resulting in a redistribution of load between beams, but does not lead to immediate failure. Vertical slip between beams starts at a high load close to the load application point and leads to failure.     

Flexural Reinforcement of Glulam Timber Beams and Joints with Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Rods

Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites have largely been used in combination with masonry and concrete structural elements in the last decade. Recent applications showed that new advantages may also be achieved in the field of timber structures, even if currently steel fasteners are used mainly in connecting systems. This study investigated the possibility of using carbon FRP (CFRP) rods as glued-in reinforcement of glulam beams and as glued-in connectors for glulam timber head joints that should transfer flexural moment between two adjacent beams. Half-scale beams were tested both with and without the presence of FRP reinforcement. Flexural behavior of CFRP-reinforced beams was compared with unreinforced beams that were used as control specimens. Two different amounts of CFRP reinforcement were used in the beam section. Experimental results showed a significant influence of the CFRP rods, because the reinforced beams demonstrated an increase in ultimate capacity and stiffness. Experimental results were also compared with numerical analysis, which showed good accordance with regard to the load and deflection values. Full-size head joints were prepared and tested. Flexural behavior of the joints was compared with the mechanical properties of monopiece beams that were used as reference specimens. Three different force transfer lengths were used for the construction of CFRP-timber joints. Experimental results showed that the use of CFRP rods in timber joints was successful, because the capacity of the CFRP-jointed beams was almost the same as that of the monolithic beams for the longest bond length that was adopted. This result is important in order to find an adequate alternative to traditional joints made with steel bolts and plates, which are unable to create rigid connections, increase dramatically the weight of timber structures, and may be subjected to corrosion in an aggressive environment. A numerical modeling based on the virtual work principle was also conducted and theoretical results were found in good accordance with the experimental results for the tested joint.     

Full-Scale Testing and Analysis for Blast-Resistant Design

A full-scale blast test was conducted on a structure representing a mailroom, constructed with unreinforced masonry walls. The four walls were retrofitted with different quantities of glass fiber-reinforced polymers (GFRP) on the outside face to increase their resistance to the blast load. In addition, shotcrete was added to the inside face of the two long walls. The objective of this test was to validate a method of analysis that can be used to design effective retrofit techniques to contain blast loads. A blast load was produced by the detonation of a 0.91?kg (2?lb) equivalent TNT charge placed near the center of the room. Instrumentation on individual walls monitored the blast pressure and the consequent displacement and velocity of the walls. Although the walls sustained extensive internal damage and plastic deformation, the retrofit was able to withstand the blast load. It was observed through the postmortem analysis of the test that the stiffness of the walls is completely lost at an early stage and only membrane action of the GFRP provides structural resistance.     

小波分析在钢筋混凝土梁损伤识别中的应用

为识别钢筋混凝土简支梁的损伤状况,对简支梁进行了逐级加载实验,每级加荷后卸荷,观测梁的裂缝,并测定梁的动力反应.将钢筋混凝土简支梁作为无限自由度体系,并对该体系的动力方程进行小波变换,得到多尺度下的结构动力响应表达式.信号经多尺度分解后,包含了信号中更多的结构损伤信息.基于此,用DASP信号处理系统对钢筋混凝土简支梁各损伤阶段的动态信号进行二进制小波分解,通过分析各频段的波形,确定了梁的损伤.     

Stress Corrosion Cracking—Crevice Interaction in Austenitic Stainless Steels Characterized By Acoustic Emission

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) susceptibility of austenitic EN1.4301 (AISI 304) and EN1.4404 (AISI 316L) stainless steels was studied using the constant load method and polymer (PTFE) crevice former in order to study the effects of crevice on SCC susceptibility. The uniaxial active loading tests were performed in 50 pct CaCl2 at 373 K (100 °C) and in 0.1 M NaCl at 353 K (80 °C) under open-circuit corrosion potential (OCP) and electrochemical polarization. Pitting, crevice, and SCC corrosion were characterized and identified by acoustic emission (AE) analysis using ∆t filtering and the linear locationing technique. The correlation of AE parameters including amplitude, duration, rise time, counts, and energy were used to identify the different types of corrosion. The stages of crevice corrosion and SCC induced by constant active load/crevice former were monitored by AE. In the early phase of the tests, some low amplitude AE activity was detected. In the steady-state phase, the AE activity was low, and toward the end of the test, it increased with the increasing amplitude of the impulses. AE allowed a good correlation between AE signals and corrosion damage. Although crevice corrosion and SCC induced AE signals overlapped slightly, a good correlation between them and microscopical characterization and stress-strain data was found. Especially, the activity of AE signals increased in the early and final stages of the SCC experiment under constant active load conditions corresponding to the changes in the measured steady-state creep strain rate of the specimen. The results of the constant active load/crevice former test indicate that a crevice can initiate SCC even in the mild chloride solution at low temperatures. Based on the mechanistic model of SCC, the rate determining step in SCC is thought to be the generation of vacancies by selective dissolution, which is supported by the low activity phase of AE during the steady-state creep strain rate region.     

轻质混凝土拼装墙板填充钢框架协同抗震性能试验研究

为了研究墙板与钢框架结构之间的协同抗震性能,对采用不同墙框连接节点的轻质混凝土拼装墙板填充钢框架进行了低周往复荷载试验。通过对比试件的承载力、滞回性能、刚度、耗能以及延性性能,探讨了轻质混凝土拼装墙板及其整体性对结构抗震性能的影响。结果表明:填充墙板钢框架结构的最终破坏形态以墙板挤压开裂,框架梁柱端部翼缘屈曲为主;轻质混凝土拼装墙板与钢框架协同工作,有利于提高结构整体的承载力和变形能力,减轻钢框架在平面内的屈曲破坏;与刚性节点相比,采用柔性节点连接墙板与钢框架对结构的承载力、层间刚度和耗能能力更为有利;增强拼装墙板的整体性,有助于提高结构整体刚度、变形和耗能能力。研究结果可为轻质混凝土拼装墙板填充钢框架结构的抗震设计提供参考。      

Response to Fire Exposure of the Pentagon Structural Elements

An overview of fire damage sustained by the Pentagon structural elements in the September 11, 2001, terrorist attack is provided. The fire intensity in some compartments of the affected areas inside the Pentagon was approximated to be between those of the two standard fire exposures ASTM E119 and E1529, based on the observed fire damage and estimated fuel load. Thermal analyses of the structural columns and beams were performed using the standard fire exposures to demonstrate the increased vulnerability of these structural elements once the concrete cover was lost.     

Test and Analysis for Ultimate Load-Carrying Capacity of Existing Reinforced Concrete Arch Ribs

The structural performance of reinforced concrete bridges gradually deteriorates due to material aging and concrete cracking. Reported here are the experimental investigations and the nonlinear finite-element analysis of two arch ribs removed from a decommissioned bridge and reinstalled in the laboratory. The old bridge had been in service for 28 years. The full-scale static tests for two arch ribs were performed. The load–displacement and load–strain relationships, the residual load-carrying capacity, and the failure form are explored in detail. The structural analysis software Marc is invoked in the theoretical computations. Both geometrical and material nonlinearities are considered. Moreover, the material aging and the structural damage are introduced in the finite-element model. For comparison, the undamaged and geometrically perfect arch rib is analyzed at the same time. A comparison between the experimental and theoretical results is made. It can be concluded that the initial cracks, the reinforcement corrosion, and the variation of the arch axial line shape are the crucial effects for the structural ultimate load-carrying capacity and failure mode.     

Behavior of FRP-Retrofitted Joints Built with Plain Bars and Low-Strength Concrete

Two series of tests on eight full-scale exterior beam-column joint subassemblages built with plain bars and low-strength concrete were conducted. No transverse reinforcement was present in the joint cores. In the first series of tests, which included three specimens, the behavior of joints before fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) retrofitting was investigated. In the second series, which included five specimens, the behavior of the FRP-retrofitted joints was investigated. The six specimens consisted of a column, an in-plane beam, a transverse beam, and a slab part, and two specimens were plane members without transverse beams and slabs. The utilized retrofitting scheme is easily applicable for actual exterior beam-column joints, even in the presence of a transverse beam and a slab. Two types of strength limitation were observed for specimens in the first series. The strength of the specimen with beam longitudinal bars sufficiently anchored to the joint core was limited by the shear strength of the joint. The strengths of the other two specimens were limited by the slip of the beams’ longitudinal bars at their anchorages. In the second series of tests, significantly better performance was obtained both in terms of shear strength and ductility, provided that the slip of the beam bars was prevented. Furthermore, by using a simple theoretical algorithm based on truss analogy, the strength and deformability characteristics of the tested reference and FRP-retrofitted joints are predicted with reasonable accuracy. The same algorithm is used for predicting the joint shear strength of specimens tested by other researchers, and satisfactory agreement is obtained between the predictions and test results.     

块石对充填体损伤演化影响的声发射表征

块石胶结充填体中块石含量是决定承载能力的关键因素,在RMT-150C材料试验机上进行不同块石含量的尾砂胶结充填体单轴压缩实验,利用1 MHz的宽频声发射传感器采集峰值破坏前各阶段声发射参量,试验结果显示了块石对充填体不同承载阶段应力-应变水平的影响。对比应力-应变-累计声发射事件数关系,发现块石的掺入有利于降低充填体裂纹产生与扩展的速率从而使其承载能力得到加强。分析试验数据得到用累计声发射事件数表征充填体损伤程度的关系式,并得到2组试件的损伤-应变水平关系曲线。分析表明,块石的加入有效抑制充填体前期的损伤增长速率,并使得损伤激增段出现后延趋势。     

砂岩单轴压缩变形规律及声发射特性

为准确确定岩石岩爆倾向性,对砂岩进行单轴压缩条件下声发射检测试验,研究岩样单轴压缩变形规律与声发射特征.对荷载-变形曲线、AE参数进行统计分析,结果表明,压密阶段和线弹性阶段声发射振铃计数较少,累积能量曲线十分平缓,释放弹性应变能较低,从塑性变形阶段开始,AE活动频繁,累积能量呈指数级释放,损伤加快,声发射类型由之前的突发型变为连续型,应变曲线拐点处,往往出现AE参数峰值.分别对AE振铃计数、累积能量和岩石损伤进行监测分析,能较准确判断砂岩岩爆倾向性.     

Acoustic Emission Monitoring and Analysis of Glass Fiber-Reinforced Composites Bridge Decks

The application of fiber-reinforced composites (FRP) is gaining momentum as an alternative material for bridge replacement, repair, and rehabilitation. While a number of states now use FRP, a lack of standards, codes, and performance data for FRP bridge decks has resulted in the use of FRP technology not being widely accepted. This paper presents the performance results, based on acoustic emission (AE), of six full-scale glass FRP bridge deck panels with nominal cross-sectional depths varying from 152 mm (6 in.) to 800 mm (30 in.). The objective was to develop for use during in-service field inspections an AE monitoring strategy that will determine the structural performance of the deck. As such, the characterization of damage, e.g., fiber breakage, matrix cracking, and delamination, was part of the investigated criteria and the contributing factors for identification of a monitoring strategy. Although some factors were determined to be associated with the performance evaluation of the structural integrity of the decks, further investigation is needed.     

Assessing Damage in Corroded Reinforced Concrete Using Acoustic Emission

The acoustic emission (AE) behavior of reinforced concrete beams tested under flexural loading was investigated to characterize and identify different sources of damage including microcrack development, localized crack propagation, and debonding of the reinforcing steel. By testing plain, notched-plain, reinforced, and corroded-reinforced specimens, different damage mechanisms were isolated and characterized. AE events were analyzed using conventional AE parameters. In addition, waveform analysis was conducted using both fast Fourier transform and wavelet transform methods. AE event rate and AE generation behavior showed different aspects depending on the degree of corrosion of reinforcing steel. The results of the cross-plot, typically amplitude versus duration, showed a clear difference with each stage of damage. Both AE parameter analysis and waveform analysis exhibited a favorable correlation with the condition of damage in the reinforced concrete beams. As a result, AE may provide a promising method to estimate the damage of reinforced concrete structures.     

Seismic Response of FRP-Upgraded Exterior RC Beam-Column Joints

Shear failure of exterior beam-column joints is identified as the principal cause of collapse of many moment-resisting frame buildings during recent earthquakes. Effective and economical strengthening techniques to upgrade joint shear resistance and ductility in existing structures are needed. In this paper, efficiency and effectiveness of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) sheets in upgrading the shear strength and ductility of seismically deficient exterior beam-column joints have been studied. Four as-built joints were constructed with nonoptimal design parameters (inadequate joint shear strength with no transverse reinforcement) representing preseismic code design construction practice of joints and encompassing most of existing beam-column connections. Out of these four as-built specimens, two specimens were used as baseline specimens (control specimens) and other two were strengthened with CFRP sheets under two different schemes (strengthened specimens). In the first scheme, CFRP sheets were epoxy bonded to joint, beams, and part of the column regions. In the second scheme, however, sheets were epoxy bonded to joint region only but they were effectively prevented against any possible debonding through mechanical anchorages. All of these four subassemblages were subjected to cyclic lateral load histories so as to provide the equivalent of severe earthquake damage. The damaged control specimens were then repaired by filling their cracks through epoxy and externally bonding them with CFRP sheets under the same above two schemes. These repaired specimens were subjected to the similar cyclic lateral load history and their response histories were obtained. Response histories of control, repaired, and strengthened specimens were then compared. The results were compared through hysteretic loops, load-displacement envelopes, column profiles, joint shear distortion, ductility, and stiffness degradation. The comparison shows that CFRP sheets are very effective in improving shear resistance and deformation capacity of the exterior beam-column joints and delaying their stiffness degradation.     

圆螺纹套管的滑脱机理研究

连接接头滑脱失效是圆螺纹套管损坏的主要形式。利用弹塑性有限元法,研究了圆螺纹套管接头发生滑脱失效的过程与机理,然后通过全尺寸试验,分析了这种接头在失效过程中的应变分布及变形情况,并验证了有限元结果。研究表明,圆螺纹套管滑脱失效最先发生在啮合大端的第1、2牙螺纹上,设法提高此处螺纹的承载能力,对提高圆螺纹套管的连接强度具有重要意义。     

不同围压条件下花岗岩压缩破坏声发射特征细观数值模拟

采用颗粒流软件PFC2D从细观上对侧限压缩下的非均匀花岗岩岩样进行了声发射(AE)时空特征研究.结果表明,随着围压的增加,岩样破坏的峰值荷载提高,破坏形式由突发失稳逐渐转变为渐进式破坏.岩样声发射的峰值出现时间和岩样的峰值破坏不同步,存在一定的滞后,大约出现在峰后90%峰值荷载处.在岩样破坏前均存在声发射的相对平静期,围压的大小不仅对声发射的时序特征有显著影响,而且声发射相对平静期也随着围压的增加而延长.通过对应变能的追踪,发现在声发射相对平静期存在应变能被吸收的现象,验证了在岩石破坏过程中存在损伤愈合过程.     

循环荷载作用下胶结充填体声发射特征试验研究

随着开采深度的增大,采场地压显现日趋严峻。胶结充填体作为充填采矿法中采场的重要结构单元,对维护采场稳定具有重要作用,因此了解认识胶结充填体在外界荷载作用下的响应特征具有重要的意义。通过进行单轴循环加卸载试验,研究了胶结充填体在加载阶段的声发射特征,以及声发射“平静”期的分形特征。结果表明:胶结充填体存在明显的压密阶段。在压密阶段初期,声发射能率较大。而后随着应力的增大,声发射能率又逐步降低,并最终维持在较低的水平;在弹性阶段,声发射事件率和能率随应力的增大而增大,并且声发射事件率普遍大于其余加载阶段;在加载应力达到胶结充填体峰值应力前,声发射会出现“平静”期。在此时期,声发射能率出现剧烈波动,且声发射分形维数是不断减小的;试验中,下级加载声发射能率大于上级加载,并且声发射能率对充填体损伤程度的敏感性大于声发射事件率。      

Second-Order Axial Deflections of Imperfect 3-D Beam-Column

Beam-columns, in general, undergo axial elongation not only from the applied axial forces but also from the transverse deflections. A practical method that takes into account the effects of these transverse deflections on the total axial deformation of a beam-column δt is by multiplying the first-order axial stiffness AE∕L by the geometrically nonlinear factor s1 [i.e., δt = P∕(s1AE∕L)]. A general solution for s1 is derived for the combined effects of end moments, a uniformly distributed load, a series of concentrated loads, sidesway, and out-of-straightness. This solution requires numerical integration and is limited to 3D elastic prismatic beam-columns with doubly symmetrical cross sections or singly symmetrical 2D beam-columns under small strains. The proposed solution can be applied to the second-order and stability analyses of frames and to the evaluation of the axial load induced by transverse loads in beams built into rigid supports. These effects are particularly important in long-span structures. An example is presented to show the validity of the proposed formulation.     

Acoustic Emission Monitoring of Hybrid FRP-Concrete Columns

Fiber-reinforced plastic tubes can be used as permanent formwork and external reinforcement for concrete columns. Failure of such columns is often accompanied by audible noise from cracking of concrete and shifting and settling of aggregates, snapping of the inner layers of the jacket, and ultimately fiber fracture. Since the state of the concrete core is not readily visible from the outside, nondestructive evaluation tools such as acoustic emission (AE) can help assess its structural integrity. The objective of this research was to investigate the applicability of AE technique to hybrid columns, and to correlate the AE parameters to the state of stress in concrete. The AE signature of hybrid columns was studied on over 40 specimens with different lengths, cross sections, jacket types, and jacket thicknesses. The study showed that (1) rate of change of cumulative AE counts with respect to the applied load correlates well with the degree of damage sustained by the concrete core; (2) longer specimens, thicker jackets, and unbonded tubes display higher AE activities; and (3) the Kaiser effect is not present in hybrid columns.