High-performance deep-ultraviolet optics for free-electron lasers

Working with wavelengths shorter than the deep ultraviolet involves the development of dedicated optics for free-electron lasers with devoted coating techniques and characterizations. High-performance deep-ultraviolet optics are specially developed to create low-loss, high-reflectivity dielectric mirrors with long lifetimes in harsh synchrotron radiation environments. In February 2001, lasing at 189.7 nm, the shortest wavelength obtained so far with free-electron-laser oscillators, was obtained at the European Free-electron-laser project at ELETTRA Synchrotron Light Laboratory, Trieste, Italy. In July 2001, 330-mW extracted power at 250 nm was measured with optimized transmission mirrors. Research and development of coatings correlated to lasing performance are reported.     

Toward resistant vacuum-ultraviolet coatings for free-electron lasers down to 150 nm

Research and development are currently trying to run a storage ring free-electron laser down to 150 nm with robust optics. Vacuum-ultraviolet fluoride optics with protected oxide layers and enhanced metallic mirrors are investigated.     

Diagnostic techniques and UV-induced degradation of the mirrors used in the Orsay storage ring free-electron laser

Due to its low gain, the Orsay storage ring free-electron laser necessitates the use of high reflectivity mirrors. Three techniques for measuring the mirror losses are presented, based on cavity decay time measurements using either an external laser, the synchrotron radiation stored in the cavity, or the free-electron laser itself. The high signal-to-noise ratio allowed the detection of loss variations as low as 10(-7)/sec(1/2). From these diagnostics three distinct processes of UV-induced degradation of TiO2/SiO2 dielectric mirrors were identified. One was a surface absorption of the upper SiO2-air interface; it was not affected by annealing. The other two corresponded to a volume absorption of the layers which completely recovered after annealing.     

Camera for coherent diffractive imaging and holography with a soft-x-ray free-electron laser

We describe a camera to record coherent scattering patterns with a soft-x-ray free-electron laser (FEL). The camera consists of a laterally graded multilayer mirror, which reflects the diffraction pattern onto a CCD detector. The mirror acts as a bandpass filter for both the wavelength and the angle, which isolates the desired scattering pattern from nonsample scattering or incoherent emission from the sample. The mirror also solves the particular problem of the extreme intensity of the FEL pulses, which are focused to greater than 10(14) W/cm2. The strong undiffracted pulse passes through a hole in the mirror and propagates onto a beam dump at a distance behind the instrument rather than interacting with a beam stop placed near the CCD. The camera concept is extendable for the full range of the fundamental wavelength of the free electron laser in Hamburg (FLASH) FEL (i.e., between 6 and 60 nm) and into the water window. We have fabricated and tested various multilayer mirrors for wavelengths of 32, 16, 13.5, and 4.5 nm. At the shorter wavelengths mirror roughness must be minimized to reduce scattering from the mirror. We have recorded over 30,000 diffraction patterns at the FLASH FEL with no observable mirror damage or degradation of performance.     

A comparative study of the UV optical and structural properties of SiO2, Al2O3, and HfO2 single layers deposited by reactive evaporation, ion-assisted deposition and plasma ion-assisted deposition

Growing requirements for the optical and environmental stability, as well as the radiation resistance against high-power laser radiation, especially for optical interference coatings used in the ultraviolet spectral range, have to be met by new, optimised, thin-film deposition technologies. For applications in the UV spectral range, the number of useful oxide thin film materials is very limited due to the higher absorption at wavelengths near to the electronic bandgap of the materials. Applying ion-assisted processes offers the ability to grow dense and stable films, but in each case careful optimisation of the deposition process (evaporation rate, substrate temperature, bombarding gas, ion energy and ion current density) has to achieve a balance between densification of the layers and the absorption. High-quality coatings and multilayer interference systems with SiO₂ as the low-index material can be deposited by various physical vapour deposition technologies, including reactive e-beam evaporation, ion-assisted deposition and plasma ion-assisted deposition. In order to improve the degradation stability of dielectric mirrors for use in UV free-electron laser optical cavities, a comparative study of the properties of SiO₂, Al₂O₃ and HfO₂ single layers was performed, and was addressed to grow very dense films with minimum absorption in the spectral range from 200 to 300 nm. The films were deposited by low-loss reactive electron-beam evaporation, by ion-assisted deposition using a ‘Mark II’ ion source, and by plasma ion-assisted deposition using the advanced plasma source. Optical and structural properties of the samples were studied by spectral photometry, infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction and reflectometry, as well as by investigation of the surface morphology. The interaction of UV radiation with photon energy values close to the bandgap was studied. For HfO₂ single layers, laser-induced damage thresholds at 248 nm were determined in the 1-on-1 and 1000-on-1 test modes as a function of the deposition technology and film thickness.     

Development and calibration of mirrors and gratings for the soft x-ray materials science beamline at the Linac Coherent Light Source free-electron laser

This work discusses the development and calibration of the x-ray reflective and diffractive elements for the Soft X-ray Materials Science (SXR) beamline of the Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS) free-electron laser (FEL), designed for operation in the 500 to 2000 eV region. The surface topography of three Si mirror substrates and two Si diffraction grating substrates was examined by atomic force microscopy (AFM) and optical profilometry. The figure of the mirror substrates was also verified via surface slope measurements with a long trace profiler. A boron carbide (B4C) coating especially optimized for the LCLS FEL conditions was deposited on all SXR mirrors and gratings. Coating thickness uniformity of 0.14 nm root mean square (rms) across clear apertures extending to 205 mm length was demonstrated for all elements, as required to preserve the coherent wavefront of the LCLS source. The reflective performance of the mirrors and the diffraction efficiency of the gratings were calibrated at beamline 6.3.2 at the Advanced Light Source synchrotron. To verify the integrity of the nanometer-scale grating structure, the grating topography was examined by AFM before and after coating. This is to our knowledge the first time B4C-coated diffraction gratings are demonstrated for operation in the soft x-ray region.     

Plasma treatment for restoration of dielectric multilayer mirrors in short-wavelength free-electron lasers

Dielectric multilayer mirrors, degraded through irradiation by high-energy undulator radiation, were successfully restored by surface treatment with RF-induced O(2) plasma. The mirror loss, which had been increased up to ~1000 parts in 10(6) (ppm) through the mirror degradation, was drastically reduced to ~100 ppm during the treatment. Such a mirror-restoration technique has been desired especially in short-wavelength free-electron lasers (FEL's), because the laser gain is so small that even a mirror loss as small as ~1000 ppm interferes with the FEL oscillation. The mirror degradation is most likely caused by the deposition and doping of carbon atoms onto the dielectric surface. The surface analysis by the x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy revealed that the plasma treatment effectively removed the carbon contamination covering the mirror surfaces without serious surface damage by high-energy particles from the plasma.     

Highly reflecting aluminum-protected optical coatings for the vacuum-ultraviolet spectral range

We discuss the approaches to preserve the high-reflectance aluminum mirror for the vacuum-ultraviolet spectral region. Single fluoride and oxide layers, a homogeneous multilayer, and hybrid multilayer solutions are put forward. Single fluoride and oxide materials have achieved reflectance above 90% at 193 nm. Multilayer capping can provide reflectance of 93.4% at 193 nm, and a hybrid multilayer of fluoride and oxide can achieve reflectance above 90% to 160 nm.     

Planar free-electron lasers with combined 1D/2D Bragg mirror resonators: A theoretical study

The operation of a free-electron laser with a combined Bragg mirror resonator is studied theoretically. The resonator comprises a pair of planar Bragg reflectors with a two-and a one-dimensional relief pattern, respectively, and is closed in the transverse direction so as to ensure unidirectional outcoupling. It is demonstrated that this design provides for a possibility of obtaining spatially coherent radiation from a sheet electron stream with the cross size exceeding the wavelength by several orders of magnitude.     

High Accuracy Ultraviolet Index of Refraction Measurements Using a Fourier Transform Spectrometer

We have constructed a new facility at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) to measure the index of refraction of transmissive materials in the wavelength range from the visible to the vacuum ultraviolet. An etalon of the material is illuminated with synchrotron radiation, and the interference fringes in the transmittance spectrum are measured using a Fourier transform spectrometer. The refractive index of calcium fluoride, CaF₂, has been measured from 600 nm to 175 nm and the resulting values agree with a traditional goniometric measurement to within 1 × 10⁻⁵. The uncertainty in the index values is currently limited by the uncertainty in the thickness measurement of the etalon.     

Salient features of using a free-electron laser with a crossed fluted cavity for generating coherent tunable gamma radiation

A new way of generating high-power tunable coherent gamma radiation in a free electron laser with a crossed fluted cavity is proposed. The gamma rays are generated in the inverse Compton scattering of intracavity radiation on the electron beam of the free-electron laser. The use of a crossed fluted cavity makes it possible to raise substantially the intracavity power and thereby the power of the gamma radiation and also to solve the problem of extraction of the hard radiation while eliminating the hitherto unavoidable losses in passage through the material of the cavity mirror. Pis’ma Zh. Tekh. Fiz. 25, 89–94 (May 26, 1999)     

Applications of a tunable VUV laser in atomic and molecular physics

The vacuum ultraviolet wavelength region from, say, 200 to 50 nm, is of basic interest and importance for many areas of physics and chemistry. Experimental work in this region has gained a dramatic increase by the synchrotron radiation. In recent years, the region is rapidly also becoming accessible to tunable lasers. In fact, the whole range down to about 100 nm can now in principle be covered by tunable, narrow-band, pulsed laser radiation of relatively high intensity, and projections are that soon the range will be further extended to ～50 nm. FEL radiation would mean, of course, another breakthrough in this spectral region with the potential of a wide spectrum of experimental applications.In this paper we wish to indicate the state-of-art of tunable laser radiation in the vacuum ultraviolet by discussing some cases of applications in various parts of physics and chemistry. Examples will be given where tunable VUV laser light is employed both for state selective pumping and probing of atomic and molecular elementary processes, for instance, photoionization, photodissociation and chemical reactions.     

Angular distribution of nonlinear harmonic generation in helical undulators: A comparison between experiments and theory

Using harmonic emission from circularly polarized undulator is a procedure that is normally employed on synchrotron beamlines in order to extend the covered spectral range. A similar capability is likewise beneficial for next-generation free-electron lasers. In this paper, we perform a first quantitative experimental analysis of the angular distribution of free-electron laser harmonic emission from helical undulators. Experimental results are compared to those obtained by means of a theoretical model based on the paraxial solution of Maxwell's equations.     

Temperature dependence of resistance and thermopower of thin indium tin oxide films

We have measured the resistance and thermopower of a series of RF sputtered and annealed indium tin oxide (ITO) thin films from 300 K down to liquid-helium temperatures. Thermal annealing was performed to modulate the levels of disorder (i.e., resistivity) of the samples. The measured resistances are well described by the Bloch-Grüneisen law between 150 and 300 K, suggesting that our thin films are metallic. At lower temperatures, a resistance rise with decreasing temperature was observed, which can be quantitatively ascribed to the two-dimensional electron-electron interaction and weak-localization effects. The thermopowers in all samples are negative and reveal fairly linear temperature dependence over the whole measurement temperature range, strongly indicating free-electron like conduction characteristics in ITO thin films. As a result, the carrier concentration in each film can be reliably determined. This work demonstrates that ITO films as thin as 15 nm thick can already possess high metallic conductivity.     

A traveling-wave ring resonator with Bragg deflectors in a two-stage terahertz free-electron laser

We propose a scheme of a two-stage terahertz free-electron laser (FEL) based on a Bragg traveling-wave ring resonator and parallel ribbon relativistic electron beams. The first beam moves in the field of a planar undulator and generates a pumping wave in the millimeter range. At the second stage, this wave transforms into terahertz radiation in the course of intraresonator backscattering on the second parallel electron beam. The ring resonator consists of four Bragg deflectors, each deflecting radiation by 90° in the vicinity of Bragg resonance, thus closing the feedback ring of the low-frequency pumping generator and simultaneously providing effective transfer of the pumping wave to the scattering stage.     

On the theory of a plasma-beam superheterodyne free-electron laser with H-ubitron pumping

The scheme of a plasma-beam superheterodyne free-electron laser (PBSFEL) with H-ubitron pumping is analyzed and several possible variants of its practical implementation are considered. Some variants represent sources of highly monochromatic signals, while the other generate signals with a rather broad spectrum. The increment of wave growth in PBSFELs is estimated and it is established that, under otherwise equal conditions, these FELs are characterized by much greater gain increments than the equivalent two-stream devices. The proposed PBSFELs have good prospects as sources of high-power electromagnetic radiation in the millimeter wavelength range.     

Generation of high-energy vacuum UV femtosecond pulses by multiple-beam cascaded four-wave mixing in a transparent solid

The generation of ultrashort vacuum UV (VUV) pulses by nondegenerate cascaded four-wave mixing of femtosecond pulses in a thin slide of a large band-gap transparent solid is numerically demonstrated. Using a novel noncollinear multiple-beam configuration, cascaded four-wave mixing of amplified 30 fs Ti:sapphire laser pulses at 800 nm, and their second harmonic in lithium fluoride results in the generation of VUV radiation down to 134 nm with energies in the μJ range and durations comparable to those of the pump pulses. The proposed geometry is advantageous in large dispersion scenarios, namely for generating radiation close to absorption bands. Hence these results set this technique as a promising way to efficiently generate ultrashort VUV radiation in solids for several applications in science and technology.     

Prefocusing optics for soft-x-ray synchrotron-radiation monochromators

We present a mirror system to be used for the prefocusing optics of soft-x-ray monochromators using synchrotron radiation from a bending magnet source. The system consists of a cylindrical and a toroidal mirror arranged coplanarly. It can be made, by proper selection of the curvature radii of the mirrors, free of astigmatic coma. The design method is described in detail; the system is evaluated by exact ray-tracing calculations. Also given is a design example of the prefocusing optics in a soft-x-ray synchrotron radiation be aniline.     

Possibility of using a large orbit regime for operation at bounce-frequency harmonics in a free-electron maser with a guiding magnetic field

It is suggested that a free-electron maser based on the LIU-3000 accelerator (Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Dubna) can be made to emit in the short-wavelength part of the microwave range by using radiation at harmonics of the bounce frequency of an electron beam propagating along a helical trajectory with a large gyration radius on the transverse inhomogeneity scale of the rf field and selectively exciting a cylindrical waveguide mode whose azimuthal index is equal to the number of the harmonic. Pis’ma Zh. Tekh. Fiz. 25, 30–36 (January 12, 1999)     

A two-dimensional distributed feedback used for synchronization of a multibeam planar free-electron maser system

We suggest to use a two-dimensional distributed feedback for synchronizing the radiation of a multibeam generator representing a system of planar free-electron maser (FEM) units, each FEM being power supplied with a ribbon-shaped relativistic electron beam. It is demonstrated that various FEM units can be coupled by transverse electromagnetic energy fluxes arising in two-dimensional Bragg structures.